FORESTS  WOODS 
AND  TREES 


UlIjF  i.  m.  MtU  SJthrarg 


5?ortf|  (Earolina  ^tatp  Imtipraita 


SD45 
H457 


NORTH  CAROLINA   STATE   UNIVERSITY   LIBRARIES 


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This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated 
below  and  is  subject  to  an  overdue  fine 
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FORESTS  WOODS  AND  TREES 
IN  RELATION  TO  HYGIENE 


THE   CHAD  WICK  LIBRARY 

RAINFALL,   RESERVOIRS   AND 
WATER  SUPPLY. 

By  Sir  Alexander  Binme.  9s.  net. 

VITAL  STATISTICS  EXPLAINED. 

By  Joseph  Bukn.  F.I.A.,  F.S.I.      9s.6d.net. 

HEALTH  IN  CAMP. 

By  Austin  T.  Nankivell,  M.D.,  Capt., 
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^    Paper  Is.  net ;  cloth  Is.  6d.  net. 

THE   FUTURE  CITIZEN  AND   HIS 
MOTHER. 

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Foreword  by  Sir  James  Crichton  Browne, 
M.D.,  D.Sc.  3S.  6d.  net. 

ALTITUDE  AND  HEALTH. 

By  Professor  F.  F.  Roget. 


THE  CHAD  WICK  LIBRARY 

FORESTS  WOODS  AND 
TREES 

IN   RELATION  TO   HYGIENE 


BY 

AUGUSTINE   HENRY 

M.A.,  F.L.S.,  M.R.I. A. 

PROFESSOR    OF     FORESTRY,     ROYAL    COLLEGE    OF    SCIENCE,    DUBLIN 


PUBLISHED     BY 


E  •  P  •  DU  TTON  •  &  •  COMPANY 

68l:|IifJHjWENUE 
NEW-YOPK.ra^ 

ESTABUSHEDiSS^, 


PREFACE 

The  subject  matter  of  this  book  was  briefly  dealt  with  by 
me  iu  three  Chadwick  Public  Lectures,  which  were  de- 
livered at  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts,  London,  in  May  1917, 
under  the  title  of  "  Forests,  Woods,  and  Trees  in  relation  to 
Hygiene." 

An  effort  is  made  in  this  book  to  interest  the  statesman, 
the  student  of  economics,  the  engineer,  the  physician,  and 
the  layman,  as  well  as  the  forester,  in  certain  aspects  of 
forests  and  trees,  about  which  vague  notions  are  prevalent. 
An  endeavour  is  made  in  the  first  two  chapters  to  recognise 
and  describe  the  far-reaching  influences  of  forests  and  trees 
on  climate,  flow  of  water,  erosion  of  the  soil,  shelter  from 
wind,  purity  of  air  and  water,  etc.  Such  influences  affect 
directly  the  health  and  comfort  of  man.  The  value  of 
forest  districts  as  sites  for  sanatoria  and  the  history  and 
utility  of  parks,  open  spaces,  and  trees  in  towns  are  then 
discussed.  The  afforestation  of  the  desolate  pit  mounds  in 
the  Black  Country  and  other  districts  is  shown  to  be  a 
movement  of  great  interest,  especially  when,  as  in  some 
cases,  it  is  taken  up  by  school  children. 

One  effect  of  the  war  has  been  to  bring  home  to  think- 
ing people  the  extreme  importance  of  afforestation.  The 
ancient  warning,  "  La  France  p(3rira  faute  de  bois,"  is  now 

V 


vi  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

applicable  to  this  country.  The  concluding  chapters  of  the 
book  are  accordingly,  with  great  fitness  for  the  times, 
devoted  to  a  study  of  the  afforestation  of  the  extensive 
gathering  grounds,  from  which  so  many  of  our  great 
centres  of  population  obtain  their  supplies  of  water.  No 
pains  have  been  spared  in  obtaining  statistics  and  informa- 
tion as  to  the  physical  features,  ownership,  and  extent  of 
these  gathering  grounds.  The  work  of  planting  suitable 
portions  of  these  areas  with  the  aid  of  disbanded  soldiers 
might  be  undertaken  at  once,  without  any  disturbance  to 
other  industries.  Their  afforestation  in  any  case  should  be 
linked  up  with  the  general  scheme  of  afforestation  of  the 
waste  lands  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which  it  is  con- 
fidently expected  will  be  undertaken  by  the  State  as  soon 
as  peace  is  made.  Scattered  as  the  gathering  grounds  are 
throughout  the  country,  they  will  form  convenient  centres 
for  planting,  more  especially  in  the  cases  where  their 
ownership  has  been  acquired  by  local  authorities.  The 
compulsory  purchase  of  catchment  areas,  which  are  not 
already  owned  by  municipalities,  is  advisable  for  sanitary 
reasons ;  and  the  necessary  legislation  may  possibly  be 
introduced  when  afforestation  by  the  State  becomes  a 
reality. 

Acknowledgements 

Much  information  concerning  water  catchment  areas  has 
been  supplied  by  town  clerks,  engineers,  and  other  municipal 
officers  throughout  the  country,  and  to  them  my  grateful 
thanks  are  now  tendered.  Messrs.  J.  &  A.  Leslie  & 
Reid,  Edinburgh  ;  Mr.  Joseph  Parry,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Consult- 
ing Engineer,  Liverpool  Waterworks  ;  Mr.  David  A,  Donald, 
Burgh     Engineer,    Grangemouth  ;     Mr.    C.    H.    Priestley, 


PKEFACE  vii 

M.Tnst.C.E.,  Cardiff;  Mr.  Frank  Howarth,  M.Inst.C.E, 
Plymouth  ;  Mr.  S.  Chapman,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Torquay  ;  Mr. 
J.  H.  H.  Swiney,  M.Inst.C.E,  Belfast ;  and  Dr.  P.  C.  Cowan, 
Local  Government  Board,  Dublin,  contributed  valuable 
information  and  aided  my  researches  in  various  ways. 
Prof.  Percy  F.  Kendall,  Leeds  University ;  Mr.  W.  B. 
Crump,  M.A.,  Eastrick  ;  Mr.  Frank  Elgee,  Middlesbrough ; 
Mr.  G.  P.  Gordon,  Lecturer  in  Forestry,  West  of  Scotland 
Agricultural  College,  Glasgow ;  and  Mr.  James  Whitton, 
Superintendent  of  Parks,  Glasgow,  furnished  me  with  plans, 
photographs,  and  lantern  slides,  which  proved  very  useful 
in  the  lectures  given  before  the  Chadwick  Society  and  in 
the  preparation  of  this  book. 

The  plates  illustrating  the  work  have  been  borrowed 
from  various  sources,  and  acknowledgements  and  thanks 
are  now  tendered  for  the  loan  of  blocks  to  Mr.  Edward 
Arnold,  Frontispiece,  from  A.  C.  Forbes,  Development  of 
British  Forestry,  and  Fig.  6,  from  Cohen  and  Euston, 
Smoke;  to  Mr.  John  Murray,  Figs.  14  and  16,  from  E.  P. 
Stebbing,  British  Forestry ;  to  the  Council  of  the  Eoyal 
Irish  Academy,  Fig.  13,  from  Pethybridge  and  Praeger, 
Vegetation  South  of  DuUin ;  to  Mr.  P.  E.  Martineau, 
Secretary,  Midland  Eeafforesting  Association,  Figs.  7,  8, 
9,  from  Annual  Eeports ;  to  Superintendent,  Linford  Sana- 
torium, Fig.  1,  from  Booklet;  to  Town  Clerk,  Bournemouth, 
Fig.  2,  from  Handbook  ;  to  Mr.  W.  H.  Morter,  Superin- 
tendent, Parks  of  Birmingham,  Fig.  4,  from  Handbook  ;  to 
Mr.  Eobert  Anderson,  Printer,  Glasgow,  Fig.  5,  from  Municipal 
Glasgow;  to  Mr.  E.  Galloway,  Secretary,  Figs.  15,  17,  22, 
26,  31,  32,  33,  from  Transactions  of  the  Eoyal  Scottish 
Arloricultural  Society ;  to  Prof.  W.  Somerville,  Editor,  Figs. 
12,  24,  25,  27,  from  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry;  to 
Editor,    Gardeners'    Chronicle,   Figs.    21,    28,   29,   30;    to 


viii  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Editor,  Country  Life,  Figs.  18,  19,  20,  23;  and  to  the 
Council  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  Figs,  37  43 
44,  46. 

AUGUSTINE  HENEY. 


Royal  College  of  Science, 
Dublin. 


CONTENTS 


I.  The  Influence  of  Forests  on  Climate 
II.  The  Sanitary  Influence  of  Forests 

III.  Forests  as  Sites  for  Sanatoria 

IV.  Parks  in  Towns  and  Mdnicipal  Forests 
V.  Trees  in  Towns 

VI.  Afforestation  of  Pit  Mounds 
VII.  Afforestation  of  Water  Catchment  Areas 
VIII.  Conditions    affecting     the     Planting    of    Water 
Catchment  Areas  .... 
IX.  Trees    for    Water    Catchment    Areas     and    for 
General  Planting 

X.  Water  Catchment  Areas  in  England  and  Wales 
XL  Water  Catchment  Areas  in  Scotland 
XII.  Water  Catchment  Areas  in   Ireland 

Index  ...... 


13 
20 
33 
44 
59 
71 

105 

119 
171 
247 
286 
307 


ILLUSTRATIONS  AND   MAPS 

FIO.  PAGK 

Mountain  Land  denuded  of  Surface  Soil     .  .      Fro7itispiece 

1.  Sleeping  Chalets  in  Wood  at    Linford    Sanatorium,  New- 

Forest  .....         Facing  20 

2.  Pine  Walk  in  Central  Gardens,  Bournemouth         .  „       21 

3.  Map  :    Mid-Lanark,  Camps  Catchment  Area  Afforestation 

Scheme           .              .              .              .              .  .30 

4.  Students'  Garden,  Cannon  Hill  Park,  Birmingham  Facing  40 

5.  Ardgoil  Estate,  Head  of  Coilessan  Glen       .              .  „       41 

6.  Stoma  of  leaf  of  Silver  Fir,  showing  deposit  of  soot  .        54 

7.  Map  :  Parks  and  Spoil  Banks,  Black  Country         .  .61 

8.  Typical    Pit    Mound    at    Littleton    Street,    West  Brom- 

wich  ......         Facing  64 

9.  Doulton  Road  School  Plantation    .  .  .  „       65 

10.  Map:  Liverpool  Corporation,  Lake  Vyrnwy  Plantations  90 

11.  Map:  Manchester  Corporation,  Thirlmere  Plantations         .        97 

12.  Plan:  Leeds  Corporation,  Afforestation  Scheme  of  Wa.sli- 

burn  Valley    .....       Facing  100 

13.  Agiarian,  Dwarf  Furze,  and  Heather  Zones,  Dublin  Moun- 

tains .  .  .  .  .  Facing  106 

14.  Thirlmere  Catchment  Area,  general  view    .  .  „       112 

15.  Mattock  Planting  on  Thirlmere  Catchment  Area    .  „       112 

16.  Talla  Catchment  Area,  planting,  April  1914  .  „       113 

17.  Belgian   Alethod  of  planting  Peat:  four  rows  of  inverted 

turfs  between  the  drains  .  .  .       Facing  113 

18.  Maritime   Pine,  three  yeai-s  old,  sown  on  bog  at  Abbey- 

leix    ......       Facing  126 

19.  Maritime    Pine,    five   years   old,   sown   on    bog   at   Abbey- 

leix    ......  Facing  126 

•20.   Maritime  Pine,  forty-seven  years  old,  at  Mullaghmore  „        127 

'21.   Doughia  Fir  plantation  at  Taymount           .              .  ,,       132 

xi 


xii  rOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

FI".  PAGE 

22.  Plantation  of  Tsuga  Alhertiana  at  Murtlily  .  Facing  132 

23.  Forest  of  Western  Larch  in  Idaho                .  .  ,,133 

24.  Japanese  Larch,  planted  nine  years              .  .  ,,140 

25.  European  Larch  at  Langley  Park  .              .  .  ,,140 

26.  Sitka  Spruce  at  Durris,  Kincardineshire    ,  .  ,,141 

27.  Beech  at  Ashridge  Park     .              .              .  .  ,,       141 

28.  Abies  nobilis  plantation  at  Durris,  with  a  few  oak  standards 

overhead  ;  Japanese  Larch  in  the  background  .      Facing  146 

29.  Gupressus  macrocarpa,  nineteen  years  planted,  in  Phoenix 

Park,  Dublin .... 

30.  Thuya  gigantea  plantation  at  Benmore 

31.  Thuya  gigantea  as  shelter  tree  on  plantation  margi 

32.  Popuhis  regenerata  at  Glasnevin      . 

33.  Popul'us  Eugenei  at  Kew    . 

34.  Map  :  North  of  England  Catchment  Areas 

35.  Map  :  Lancashire  Catchment  Areas 

36.  Map :    Yorkshire,    Cheshire,    and     Derbyshire    Catchment 

Areas  .  .  .  .  .  .191 

37.  Plan  :    Blackburn.     Brennand  and  Whitendale  Catchment 

Area.  ......      196 

38.  Map :    Longdendale,    Derwent    Valley,    and    neighbouring 

Catchment  Areas         .....  206 

39.  Map:  Midland  and  Severn  Valley  Catchment  Areas            .  213 

40.  Map  :  Somerset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall  Catchment  Areas  .  223 
Wales  Catchment  Areas  .  .  .  .231 
West,  Central,  and  South  Scotland  Catchment  Areas  248 
Edinburgh.  Glencorse  Burn  Catchment  Area  .  266 
Edinburgh.  Talla  Water  Catchment  Area .  .  268 
Clackmannan,  Fife,  East  Perth,  and  Forfar  Catch- 
ment Areas     ......  273 

Plan  :   Kirkcaldy  District.     Slateford  Burn  and  River  Farg 

Catchment  Areas         .  .  .  .  .278 


Facing 

147 

„ 

166 

„ 

166 

„ 

167 

5> 

167 

173 

179 

41. 

Map 

42. 

Map 

43. 

Plan 

44. 

Plan 

45. 

Map 

47.  Map 

48.  Map 

49.  Map 


Inverness,  Ross,  and  Aberdeen  Catchment  Areas       .     283 
North  Ireland  Catchment  Areas       .  .  .288 

South  Ireland  Catchment  Areas       .  .  .     297 


CHAPTER   I 

THE    INFLUENCE    OF    FORESTS    ON    CLIMATE 

The  influence  of  forests  on  climate  is  undoubted,  though 
perhaps  less  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  subject^  is  a 
difficult  one  to  study  ;  and  on  many  points  no  agreement 
has  been  arrived  at  amongst  engineers  and  foresters.  The 
latter  usually  hold  that  the  presence  of  forests  is  beneficial, 
in  increasing  the  amount  of  rain  in  a  district  or  country, 
and  in  diminishing  the  erosion  (Frontispiece)  and  the  con- 
sequent great  losses  of  the  soil  on  hill  and  mountain  slopes. 
The  foresters  agree  with  Humboldt's  saying :  "  How  foolish 
is  man  in  destroying  the  mountain  forests,  as  thereby  he 
deprives  himself  of  wood  and  water  at  the  same  time." 

The  desolation  that  now  prevails  in  parts  of  Spain, 
Algeria,  and  other  Mediterranean  lands  is  generally  ascribed 
to  the  gradual  drying  up  of  the  climate,  consequent  on  the 
lessened  rainfall  brought  about  through  the  steady  clearing 
of  the  forests  by  human  agency.  It  is,  howeter,  well 
established  that  great  climatic  changes  of  cosmic  origin 
occur  in  the  course  of  centuries ;  and  the  disappearance  of 
the  forests  in  those  countries  may  be  possibly  not  the  cause 
but  the  result  of  lessened  rainfall  in  the  present  epoch  as 
compared  with  Eoman  times. 

Numerous  observations  taken  over  short  periods  of  years 
in  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States  show  that 
forests  exert  in  the  districts  which  they  cover  a  definite 
influence  on  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  of  the  soil,  on 
the  rainfall,  on  the  melting  of  the  snow,  on  the  water  supply 

1  B 


2  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

and  stream-flow,  and  on  the  erosion  of  the  soil  on  slopes  of 
hills  and  mountains.  The  positive  results  of  these  observa- 
tions, which  are  detailed  below  under  separate  headings, 
may  be  considered  to  hold  good  with  regard  to  the  British 
Isles  and  temperate  regions  generally.  It  is  only  fair  to 
state  that  the  beneficial  action  of  the  forest  in  increasing 
the  rainfall,  in  diminishing  the  run-off  water,  and  in  pre- 
venting the  erosion  of  the  soil  is  not  universally  admitted. 
The  main  arguments  against  the  ordinary  view  were 
published  by  H.  M.  Chittenden  (1)  in  1908.  The  attention 
of  foresters  and  engineers  may  also  be  directed  to  the  im- 
portant monograph,  entitled  Boschi  e  Acque,  which  was 
published  at  Rome  in  1916  by  M.  Giandotti  (2),  Director 
of  the  Hydrographic  Office  of  the  river  Po.  This  is  a 
complete  study  of  the  whole  question  of  the  relation  of 
forests  to  rainfall  and  stream-flow. 

The  investigations  carried  out  in  India  on  the  influence 
of  forests  on  atmospheric  and  soil  moisture,  which  have 
been  the  subject  of  a  recent  ofiicial  report  (Indian  Forest 
Bulletin,  No.  33,  1916),  throw  no  new  light  on  the  problem 
as  regards  tropical  regions.  The  general  conclusions  arrived 
at  in  India  were :  "  The  influence  of  forests  on  rainfall  is 
probably  small,  but  the  denudation  of  the  soil,  owing  to 
the  destruction  of  forests,  may  be  regarded  as  an  established 
fact  in  India."  Dr.  Gilbert  Walker,  in  an  appendix  to 
this  bulletin,  points  out  the  difficulty  of  such  investigations, 
one  cause  of  error  being  the  tendency  of  the  annual  rainfall 
to  run  in  spells  of  excessive  and  deficient  years,  so  that  the 
exact  influence  of  forest  growth  or  of  forest  destruction  is 
not  readily  arrived  at.  Dr.  Hugh  R,  Mill,  in  Nature, 
2nd  August  1917,  p,  446,  advocates  a  study  of  the  relation 
of  the  isohyetal  (3)  lines  to  the  configuration  of  the  land 
on  wooded  and  treeless  districts  of  similar  character ;  and 
instances  from  the  report  of  the  rainfall  in  the  Geological 
Survey's  Water  Supply  Memoirs  on  Hampshire  that  the 
district  of  the  New  Forest  shows  a  considerably  higher  general 
rainfall  than  its  elevation  above  sea-level  appears  to  suggest. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  state  now  under  four  distinct 


INFLUENCE  OF  FOKESTS  ON  CLIMATE         3 

headings  the  various  ways  in  which  forests  affect  climate  in 
temperate  regions,  as  determined  by  observations  taken  in 
France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States. 

1.  The  Influence  of  Forests  on  TemperaUtrc  of  the  Air  and 
of  the  Soil. — The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  air  inside 
a  forest  is  lowered  about  1  °  F.  on  an  average.  This  cooling 
effect  occurs  mainly  in  summer,  and  is  not  noticeable  in 
winter.  It  is  owing  to  the  lowered  temperature  of  the  air 
over  wooded  areas  that  balloons  are  observed  to  sink  im- 
mediately after  they  begin  to  move  over  a  forest.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  inside  a  forest  is,  however,  raised  at 
night ;  and  as  a  result,  spring  and  autumn  frosts  are  much 
less  frequent  and  less  disastrous  in  wooded  tracts  than  in 
the  open  country.  A  richly  afforested  country  has  a  lower 
temperature  in  summer  than  a  neighbouring  country  that 
is  bare  of  trees  in  the  same  latitude.  Bosnia,  which  is 
covered  with  forests,  is  4°  Fahr.  cooler  in  summer  than 
denuded  Herzegovina.  The  soil  of  the  forest  is  warmer  in 
winter  (about  2°  F.)  and  cooler  in  summer  (about  5°  to 
1 0°  F.)  than  agricultural  land  outside.  The  relative  humidity 
of  the  air  in  the  forest  is  greater  than  that  in  the  neighbour- 
ing open  country. 

2.  The  Influence  of  Forests  upon  Rainfall. — Tliis  is  a 
difficult  and  complicated  subject,  as  the  effect  of  forests  on 
the  total  amount  of  rainfall  over  a  whole  country  is  doubt- 
ful. In  the  British  Isles  and  Western  Europe,  where  the 
evaporation  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  plays  the  most  im- 
portant part  in  the  precipitation  over  the  land,  the  effect  of 
afforestation  in  increasing  the  general  rainfall  is  probably 
negligible.  Where  the  precipitation  over  the  land  comes 
from  the  land  itself  the  effect  of  forests  may  be  considerable. 
The  forest  evaporates  more  water  than  any  other  kind  of 
vegetation  cover,  and  much  more  than  free  water  surfaces, 
like  seas  and  lakes.  "  An  oak  forest  at  Mariabrunn  near 
Vienna,  which  was  115  years  old,  was  found  to  evayorate 
daily,  by  transpiration  through  the  leaves,  about  2500 
gallons  of  water  per  acre,  corresponding  to  a  rainfall  of 
3*5  inches  per  month,  or  a  rainfall  of  17*5  inches  during  a 


4  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

growing  period  of  five  months."  This  shows  how  much 
moisture  is  passed  into  the  air  by  a  wooded  area.  Forests 
thus  enrich  with  moisture  the  winds  that  pass  over  them, 
and  contribute  to  the  humidity  of  the  regions  into  which 
the  prevailing  winds  pass.  The  usefulness  of  large  forests 
in  the  interior  of  great  continental  regions  like  the  United 
States,  in  regard  to  rainfall,  is  thoroughly  explained  by  Dr. 
E.  Zon,  in  an  important  article  on  "  Forests  and  Eainfall " 
in  Science,  xxxviii.  p.  63  (1913).  He  advocates  the  pro- 
tection of  such  forests ;  whereas  swamps,  which  contribute 
less  to  the  moisture  content  of  the  air,  ought  to  be  drained. 
When  a  forest  is  cut  away,  he  recommends  that  the  cleared 
ground  should  be  devoted  to  intensive  cultivation,  as  after 
trees,  crops  contribute  most  to  the  moisture  of  the  air. 
Vezozkii  (4)  holds  similar  views  in  regard  to  Eussia,  namely, 
that  the  forests  ought  to  be  preserved  in  the  regions  which 
abound  in  moisture  and  lie  in  the  route  of  the  air  currents 
carrying  moisture. 

The  influence  of  forests  upon  local  precipitation  has  been 
determined  by  observations  taken  at  Nancy  in  France  over 
33  years.  These  show  an  excess  of  precipitation  in  the 
forested  areas  of  12  to  23  per  cent.  As  Huffel  says,  the 
forest  always  increases  the  frequency  and  abundance  of 
atmospheric  precipitation.  It  rains  more  in  the  centre  of 
a  great  forest  than  at  the  margin,  and  more  on  the  edge  of 
the  forest  than  at  some  miles  distant  over  agricultural  land. 
This  action  of  the  forest  in  increasing  rainfall  is  much  more 
marked  in  the  mountains  and  at  high  altitudes  than  in  the 
low  and  level  plains.  This  is  well  shown  by  the  following 
table,  taken  from  over  200  stations  during  a  period  of  ten 
years  in  Prussia : 

Altitude  of  Stations 


Below 
300  ft. 

330  to 
650  ft. 

7S0to 
1300  ft. 

1970  to 
2300  ft. 

2300  to 
2600  ft. 

3000  to 
3250  ft. 

Rainfall  in  inches  of 
stations  in  the  forest . 

Rainfall  in  inches  of 
ordinary  stations  .     . 

25-9 
25-5 

26-2 
22-9 

29-4 
27-4 

42-9 
36-0 

55-5 
38-6 

69-9 
37-9 

INFLUENCE  OF  FOKESTS  ON  CLIMATE        5 

This  shows  that  at  elevations  of  less  than  300  feet  the 
rainfall  was  the  same  as  in  the  open  country ;  but  that  with 
increasing  elevations  the  rainfall  in  the  forest  exceeded 
more  and  more  that  in  unforested  localities ;  thus  at  3000 
feet  elevation  the  rainfall  was  84  per  cent  more  in  the 
forest. 

The  effect  of  local  afforestation  is  to  increase  the  rainfall 
in  the  district.  This  has  been  proved  by  observations  taken 
in  several  localities,  one  being  a  moorland  in  Hanover,  and 
another  a  considerable  area  in  the  southern  steppes  of  liussia, 
which  were  planted  with  trees.  Eain-gauges  were  placed 
inside  the  planted  tracts  and  in  the  surrounding  country; 
and  as  the  plantations  were  increased  year  by  year,  the 
rainfall  recorded  in  them  was  found  to  be  gradually 
augmented. 

3.  Tlic  Influence  of  Forests  upon  Melting  of  Snow. — Prof. 
J.  E.  Church  (5),  Director  of  the  Mount  Kose  Observatory, 
Nevada,  U.S.A.,  has  made  interesting  researches  into  the 
restraining  effect  of  forests  on  the  melting  of  snow.  He  has 
devised  new  methods  of  rapidly  and  economically  measuring 
large  areas  of  snow  at  high  altitudes.  In  the  Sierra  Nevadas 
a  larger  quantity  of  snow  accumulates  in  forests  than  on 
bare  slopes,  the  forests  that  retain  snow  best  being  those 
with  open  narrow  glades.  There  can  be  no  longer  any 
question  of  the  direct  influence  of  forests  in  delaying  the 
melting  of  snow  and  in  retarding  stream-flow  at  the  very 
time  when  floods  normally  occur.  The  forested  slope 
contains  an  average  water-content  (the  snow  being  converted 
into  an  equivalent  amount  of  water)  one-fifth  greater  than 
the  bare  but  protected  slope  above  it,  nearly  twice  as  much 
water  as  the  cornice  at  the  edge  of  the  mountain,  over 
fourteen  times  the  moisture  conserved  by  the  wind-swept 
slope,  and  more  than  twice  the  average  water-content  of  all 
three  areas  combined.  Prof.  Church  advocates  the  planting 
of  timber  screens  at  strategic  points  on  exposed  slopes  in 
order  gi'eatly  to  increase  their  capacity  to  store  more  snow. 
There  are  thus  two  types  of  reservoirs :  the  snow  reservoirs 
formed  by  the  forest  to  hold  the  snow  in  its  original  form, 


6  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

and  the  water  reservoirs  below  to  impound  the  flood  waters 
of  the  stream.  The  development  of  the  former  is  the 
immediate  and  feasible  task  of  the  forester,  the  construction 
of  the  latter  is  the  work  of  the  engineer.  Prof.  Church's 
investigations  open  up  a  new  field  for  planting  trees  at  high 
altitudes  with  a  view  of  lessening  the  volume  and  frequency 
of  disastrous  floods,  which  are  due  to  rapid  melting  of  snow 
in  the  mountains  from  which  they  take  their  source. 

4.  The  Influence  of  Forests  on  Water  Supply,  on  Floods, 
and  on  Soil  Erosion. — The  most  important  action  of  the  forest 
probably  is  its  influence  on  water  supply  or  stream-flow. 
We  must  distinguish  the  great  difference  of  this  influence 
in  the  plain  and  in  the  mountain. 

Only  a  part  of  the  precipitation  is  available  for  water 
supply.      Of  the  total  rainfall  over  an  area, 

(1)  a  part  is  intercepted  by  the  foliage  of  the  trees  and 

evaporated ; 

(2)  a  part  is  evaporated  from  the  soil ; 

(3)  a  part  is  absorbed   by   the  trees  and  other  plants, 

and  is  partly  transpired  by  them ; 

(4)  a   part   flows    directly   off  the   ground,  joining   im- 

mediately a  stream  or  river ;  this  is  known  as  the 
run-off ; 

(5)  the  remainder  of  the  rainfall  sinks  into  the  ground, 

and  joins  the  stratum  of  underground  water, 
ultimately  going  to  supply  springs  and  streams. 
On  level  land  the  total  loss  of  water  from  these  various 
causes,  interception,  transpiration,  and  evaporation,  is  some- 
what greater  from  the  forest  than  from  any  other  cover,  and 
is  less  from  bare  soil,  where  it  is  about  50  per  cent  of  the 
rainfall.  The  surface  run-off  in  level  country  is  negligible, 
and  a  bare  soil  would  retain  the  greatest  amount  of  water 
for  wells,  etc.  As  a  net  result,  in  the  plain,  the  forest  acts 
as  a  drainer  of  the  soil.  Hence,  the  action  of  plantations 
of  woods  and  trees  in  draining  marshy  ground  is  often  of 
considerable  hygienic  value.  The  total  effect  of  forests  or 
woods  on  the  springs  and  water  supply  in  the  level  country 
may,  however,  be  looked  on  as  of  little  importance. 


INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE         7 

In  hilly  and  mountainous  regions  there  are  numerous 
springs,  and  the  underground  water  is  in  motion.  On 
slopes  the  run-off  water,  that  is  nil  or  negligible  in  the 
plain,  becomes  large  in  quantity.  The  action  of  the  forest 
is  to  reduce  the  surface  run-off  to  percolation.  This  action 
depends  on  the  litter  and  humus  of  the  floor  of  the  forest, 
which  act  like  a  sponge  absorbing  four  or  five  times  their 
weight  of  water.  There  is  practically  no  surface  run-off 
from  wooded  watersheds  having  an  abundant  leaf-mould 
and  litter.  This  water  then  sinks  slowly  into  the  ground, 
ultimately  to  re-appear  in  the  springs  lower  down  the 
valley.  Similarly,  forests  preserve  the  snows  many  days 
longer  than  in  the  open  country  ;  their  melting  becomes 
very  gradual,  and  the  run-off  is  stopped  or  diminished.  On 
a  bare  slope,  on  the  contrary,  the  run-off  is  very  great,  so 
that  immense  quantities  of  water  reach  the  rivers  in  a  short 
time,  causing  often  disastrous  floods.  Forests  thus,  by 
diminishing  or  stopping  the  run-off,  increase  in  hilly  and 
mountainous  regions  the  quantity  of  water  that  percolates 
into  the  ground  and  ultimately  re-appears  as  springs.  At 
the  same  time  the  forest  preserves  the  soil  on  slopes  from 
erosion.  In  deforested  mountains  torrents  carry  enormous 
quantities  of  soil,  rocks,  and  stones  into  the  rivers,  wliicli 
may  become  silted  up  and  useless  for  navigation. 

Floods,  besides  being  very  disastrous  financially,  as  they 
may  cause  much  destruction  of  buildings,  bridges,  railways, 
etc.,  as  well  as  permanent  injury  by  silting  over  tracts  of 
good  land,  are  often  serious  to  public  health.  There  may 
be  loss  of  life  and  suffering  and  sickness  caused  by  exposure 
and  privation.  Damage  may  be  done  to  systems  of  drain- 
age, sewerage,  and  water  supply,  thus  affecting  injuriously 
the  health  of  a  city  or  community.  Not  unfrequently  an 
epidemic  follows  a  flood. 

The  great  diminution  of  the  run -off  water  in  forests  is 
due  to  various  causes.  The  rain  falls  more  gently,  owing 
to  the  obstruction  of  the  foliage ;  its  flow  is  impeded  by  the 
roots  of  the  trees ;  and  it  is  absorbed  as  fast  as  it  falls  by 
the  deep  layer  of  humus  and  litter  on  the  soil.      It  must  be 


8  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

remembered  that  when  there  occur  abnormally  heavy 
precipitations  or  long-continued  rains,  the  forest  floor  will 
become  saturated  and  be  unable  to  absorb  more  water,  so 
that  disastrous  floods  may  occur  even  in  the  best  forested 
areas.  The  forest,  however,  plays  an  important  part  in 
preventing  a  certain  proportion  of  the  otherwise  inevitable 
floods  ;  and  its  effect  on  the  supply  of  water  to  springs  is 
undoubted.  Forests  are  efficient  to  a  high  degree  in  pre- 
venting erosion  of  the  soil,  formation  of  torrents,  disastrous 
floods,  and  the  filling  up  of  the  beds  of  rivers  with  silt. 
In  channels  filled  with  sediment  even  a  slight  rainfall  may 
cause  a  flood,  hence  the  utility  of  the  forest  in  keeping 
streams  and  rivers  deep  and  capable  of  carrying  away 
unusual  quantities  of  rain. 

The  effect  of  deforestation  in  increasing  the  number  and 
seriousness  of  floods  was  well  shown  by  M.  0.  Leighton  (6) 
in  1909,  who  proved  that  floods  in  the  United  States  had 
been  increasing  in  most  rivers,  no  other  cause  being  dis- 
cernible than  the  continuous  felling  of  timber  in  the  upper 
part  of  their  watersheds. 

It  is  the  absorbent  nature  of  the  ground  that  determines 
whether  or  not  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of  the  rainfall 
and  snow  will  run  off  directly  into  the  river.  A  large 
proportion  is  a  flood.  None  of  the  conditions  in  the  river 
basins  studied  by  Leighton  appeared  to  vary,  except  the 
surface  vegetation,  as  the  climate,  topography,  geology,  etc., 
remained  unaltered.  The  variation  in  the  surface  vegetation 
was  the  continuous  reduction  of  the  forest  area  by  felling 
timber  in  the  river  basins.  The  watersheds  studied  were 
those  of  three  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  Eiver  in  its  upper 
drainage  area.  During  the  last  20  to  30  years,  there  was 
an  increase  of  floods ;  and  when  the  variation  in  the  annual 
rainfall  has  been  allowed  for,  Leighton's  diagrams  show  that 
the  only  factor  that  could  have  had  any  influence  in 
increasing  the  floods  was  the  constant  and  rapid  deforesta- 
tion that  had  been  carried  on  during  the  period  in  the 
three  river  basins. 

Hall   and  Maxwell  (7),  who  studied  the  conditions  of 


INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE        9 

the  watersheds  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  confirm 
Leighton's  conclusions.  These  investigators  attribute  the 
great  increase  in  the  frequency  and  duration  of  the  floods 
in  the  rivers  originating  in  this  region,  to  the  clearing  away 
of  the  forests  on  the  mountain  watersheds  of  the  streams. 
They  strongly  urge  the  preservation  of  the  forests  around 
the  headwaters  of  the  rivers.  Their  researches  brought  out 
the  interesting  fact  that  the  increased  run-off"  due  to  forest 
clearance  diminished  the  evaporation  over  the  watershed, 
and  in  consequence  lessened  the  local  rainfall.  In  other 
words,  the  rivers  were  found  to  discharge  more  water, 
though  the  rainfall  over  the  watershed  had  decreased.  This 
result,  however,  was  to  be  expected,  because  if,  as  already 
shown,  the  presence  of  forests  increases  local  rainfall,  then 
their  clearance  will  diminish  it. 

Forest  cover  has  been  lately  shown  to  have  a  distinct  and 
measurable  eff'ect  upon  navigable  streams  in  Pennsylvania. 
This  question  had  to  be  decided  by  the  U.S.  Geological 
Survey  before  the  Forest  Service  could  purchase  under  the 
Weeks  Law  any  land  in  the  White  Mountains.  The  report 
drawn  up  by  Mr.  Leighton  (8)  gives  the  result  of  his 
observations  on  two  small  adjoining  watersheds  in  this 
region,  precisely  similar  in  area,  shape,  aspect,  and  geology, 
but  diff'ering  in  vegetation.  One  watershed  was  covered 
with  virgin  forest ;  the  other,  which  had  been  cleared  of 
all  its  timber  and  burnt  over  subsequently,  bore  only  a 
cover  of  brushwood.  Measurements  of  precipitation  over 
the  areas  and  of  the  run-off  of  the  respective  streams  show 
that  not  only  was  the  snow  held  better  in  the  forested  area, 
but  that  during  a  period  of  17  days  in  April,  including 
three  extended  storms,  the  run-off  of  the  stream  in  the 
deforested  area  was  a  comparative  flood,  practically  double 
that  of  the  stream  flowing  through  the  forested  area. 

The  action  of  forests  in  diminishing  floods  of  rivers  is 
not  universally  admitted.  The  observations  of  E.  V. 
Oppokov  (9)  on  the  relation  of  the  river  Dnieper  to  rainfall, 
etc.,  from  1876  to  1908,  seem  to  controvert  Leighton  ;  but 
are    probably    explained    by    the    difference    between    the 


10  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

Eussian  river  in  the  plain  and  the  American  rivers  in  the 
mountains.  Oppokov's  conclusions  are  as  follows :  The 
flow  of  the  Dnieper  is  closely  related  to  the  amount  of 
rainfall  in  the  whole  basin.  Eainfall  and  evaporation  are 
the  most  important  factors  influencing  the  level  of  the 
river.  The  influence  of  woods  and  also  of  peat-bogs  has 
been  greatly  over-estimated.  He  even  believes  that  a 
considerable  amount  of  vegetation  in  a  river  basin  may 
lower  the  level  of  a  river  owing  to  the  amount  of  evapora- 
tion set  up,  and  says  that  the  best  conservers  of  water  are 
not  peat-bogs  or  forests,  but  beds  of  sandstone. 

Mr.  Cecil  H.  Eoberts,  C.E.,  has  made  investigations  on 
the  climate  and  physical  features  of  the  basin  of  the  river 
Dee,  in  connection  with  proposals  for  the  extension  of  the 
Aberdeen  Waterworks.  These  investigations  are  described 
in  a  paper  as  yet  unpublished.  Mr.  Eoberts  has  not  been 
able  to  trace  any  influence  either  of  forests  or  of  the  felling 
of  large  areas  of  wood  on  the  maximum  or  minimum  flows 
of  the  river  (10). 

As  the  results  of  observation  are  capable  of  varied 
interpretation,  it  is  of  interest  to  record  that  the  influence 
of  forests  on  stream-flow  is  now  being  experimentally 
studied  (11).  This  important  experiment,  which  will 
probably  settle  the  question,  was  inaugurated  in  1910  in 
the  Eio  Grande  National  Forest  in  the  Eocky  Mountains  of 
Colorado.  This  experiment  involves  the  careful  measure- 
ment for  a  number  of  years  of  two  streams  flowing  out  of 
two  well-wooded  watersheds  ;  and  later  a  comparison  of 
the  flow  of  these  streams  after  the  forest  cover  has  been 
removed  from  one  of  the  watersheds.  Dams,  weirs,  and 
recording  instruments  for  measuring  the  flow  of  the  streams 
have  been  installed,  as  well  as  instruments  for  measuring 
temperature,  rainfall,  evaporation,  humidity,  and  other 
atmospheric  factors  that  may  affect  the  flow.  All  outside 
.  factors  will  be  eliminated ;  and  the  records  at  the  end  of 
ten  or  twenty  years  are  expected  to  throw  much  light  on 
the  relation  of  the  forests  on  mountain  watersheds  to  the 
flow  of  the  mountain  streams. 


INFLUENCE  OF  FOEESTS  ON  CLIMATE      11 

The  most  important  publication  on  the  influence  of 
forests  on  climate  is  a  memoir  of  197  pages,  entitled 
Forest  Infiuences,  by  E,  B.  Fernow  and  other  writers,  which 
was  issued  in  1893  as  Bulletin  No.  7  by  the  Forestry 
Division  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The 
reader  may  also  peruse  with  interest  the  paper  (12), 
Oil  the  Thermal  Injluence  of  Forests,  read  by  Eobert  Louis 
Stevenson,  the  famous  novelist,  at  Edinburgh  in  1873. 
Stevenson  suggested  systematic  observations  at  three  sets  of 
stations,  in  plantations,  just  outside  them,  and  at  a  distance. 
Such  researches  (13)  had,  however,  been  begun  in  1866  by 
Mathieu  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nancy,  where  observations 
at  three  stations  were  carried  out  continuously  till  1899. 
The  German  IMeteorological  Forest  Service,  which  was 
established  in  1875,  has  made  similar  observations  at 
various  stations  from  that  date  onwards. 

NOTES 

1.  In  Proc.  Amcr.  Soc.  Civil  E'liginccrs,  vol.  34,  pp.  924-927  (1908). 

2.  Giandotti's  monograph  appeared  originally  in  Giornale  del  Genio 
Civile,  Rome,  1915,  pp.  325-408  and  425-487.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts  :  (1)  the  inlluenoe  of  forests  on  climate  in  general  and  on  precipitation, 
and  (2)  the  influence  of  forests  on  the  regulation  of  surface  water  and  under- 
ground water.  A  full  account  is  given  of  the  researches  of  Ototzky  in  Russia 
on  the  influence  of  forests  on  underground  water.  Floods  in  rivers,  where 
the  forests  are  preserved  and  where  they  are  cleared,  are  discussed.  A  final 
section  is  devoted  to  Italy. 

3.  Isohyetal  lines  or  isohyetals  are  lines  drawn  through  and  connecting 
places  having  equal  amounts  of  rainfall. 

4.  In  Ititinud.  Bull.  Agric.  Intelligence,  iii.  p.  444  (1912). 

5.  See  J.  E.  Church,  in  Engineering  Record,  13th  June  1914  and  I7th 
April  1915  ;  Scientific  American  Supplemeiit,  7th  Sept.  1912,  p.  152  ; 
Soiiderabdruck  Metcorol.  Zeitschr.  xxx.,  1913,  Heft  1  ;  Quarterly  Journal 
R.  Meteorological  Society,  xi.  43-55  (Jan.  1914)  ;  S.  P.  Ferguson  in  Science 
Conspectus,  April  1913,  pp.  152-157  ;  Norman  De  W.  Betts,  in  Proc.  Soc. 
Anier.  Foresters,  xi.  27-32  (1916);  Journ.  of  Forestry,  xvi.  585  (1918). 

6.  U.S.  Geol.  Survey,   Water- Supply  Paper,  234,  p.  11  (1909). 

7.  Hall  and  Maxwell,  U.S.  Forest  Service  Circular,  176,  p.  11,  and  Proc. 
Soc.  Amer.  Foresters,  iv.  133-150  (1909). 

8.  See  Austin  F.  Hawes,  "Influence  of  Forests  on  Water  Storage  and 
Stream-Flow,"  in  Proc.  Vermmit  Society  of  Engineers,  12th  Slarch  1914, 
p.  29  ;  and  Science,  21st  June  1912,  p.  959. 

9.  See  Meteorological  Office  Circular,  No.  6,  p.  4  (Nov.  1916). 

10.  At  the  Annual  Meeting  of  the  British  Waterworks  Association  at 
Birmingham,  1918,  Mr.  C.  H.   Roberts  said:    "Records  in  Aberdeen  went 


12  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

to  show  that  forests  had  not  reduced  the  river  floods.  Dry  weather  flows 
appeared  to  be  higher  than  100  years  ago,  when  the  forests  were  greater  " 
bee  Timber  Trades  Journal,  19th  October  1918,  p.  503. 

11.  C.  G.  Bates,  in  Proc.  Soc.  Amer.  Foresters,  vi.  pp.  52-63  (1911). 

12.  Proc.  Royal  Soc.  Edinburgh,  viii.  pp.  114-125  (1875). 

13.  Huffel,  Economie  Forcstiere,  i.  pp.  67-73  (1904). 


CHAPTEE  II 

THE    SANITARY    INFLUENCE    OF   FORESTS 

The  protection  afforded  by  forests  or  even  by  belts  of  trees 
makes  life  more  bearable  in  districts  where  cold  and  humid 
winds  prevail.  Crops  are  enabled  to  grow  which  would 
not  otherwise  succeed ;  and  domestic  animals  enjoy 
vigorous  health,  fatten,  and  produce  an  increased  supply  of 
milk  (1).  Very  few  persons,  not  excepting  scientific  men 
interested  in  ecology,  have  recognised  the  full  severity  of 
the  effect  on  all  living  things  of  humid  winds  conveying 
air  at  a  low  temperature  and  persisting  for  a  long  period 
of  time.  The  eftect  of  such  winds  on  trees  themselves  is 
most  marked.  Their  stems  are  greatly  shortened  in  height, 
becoming  under  extreme  conditions  unable  to  rise  above  the 
ground,  as  is  well  seen  on  the  west  coast  of  Scandinavia, 
Denmark,  Holstein,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  It  is  not  the 
cold  alone  of  the  mountain  summits  or  of  the  Arctic  plains 
that  stops  tree  growth,  but  the  combined  effect  of  wind,  wet, 
and  cold. 

In  regions  of  extreme  cold,  if  the  air  is  still,  there  may 
occur  large  forests  as  in  Siberia.  Trees  exposed  to  winds 
are  not  only  lessened  in  height,  but  are  also  altered  in 
shape,  as  they  produce  branches  which  grow  best  on  the 
leeward  side ;  and  assuming  what  may  be  designated  the 
'  flag '  form,  they  indicate  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 
wind,  which  may  be  determined  by  the  feeble  or  absent 
growth  on  the  windward  side.  The  injuries  to  trees,  which 
are  commonly  ascribed  to  salt  spray  (2),  are  probably  due 
entirely  to  strong  wind,  as  may  be  ascertained  by  examina- 
13 


14  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

tion  of  the  leaves.  It  is  the  force  of  the  wind  which, 
at  the  same  time  that  it  hurls  the  salt  spindrift  inland, 
damages  the  tissues  of  the  trees  (3).  The  favourable  wind- 
break effect  of  screens  of  trees,  or  forests,  is  perhaps  one  of 
the  best  arguments  for  locating  sanatoria  for  tuberculous 
patients  in  forest  districts. 

Dr.  W.  Gordon  (4)  proved  that  the  strong  prevailing 
westerly  and  south-westerly  winds  in  Devonshire  are 
harmful  in  phthisis,  mainly  owing  to  their  chilling  and 
depressing  effect,  though  they  tend  in  a  lesser  degree  to  excite 
bronchial  catarrh  in  feeble  persons.  What  I  wish  to 
emphasise  is  the  invariable  action  of  cold  wet  wind  on 
plant  and  animal  life  in  reducing  vitality.  To  these  winds 
are  due  the  formation  of  peat  on  wind-exposed  sites  in 
localities  with  a  high  rainfall,  as  in  the  mountains  of  this 
country  above  a  certain  elevation.  The  further  west,  the 
greater  the  exposure  to  the  wind  and  the  higher  the  rainfall 
at  low  elevations  ;  so  that  this  kind  of  peat,  known  as 
mountain  peat  (5),  is  prevalent  in  the  west  of  Ireland  on 
land  not  much  higher  than  100  or  200  feet  above  sea- 
level,  while  in  the  east  of  Ireland,  as  in  the  Dublin 
mountains,  peat  scarcely  occurs  below  1000  feet  altitude. 

The  advantage  of  forests  and  shelter  belts  to  human 
beings,  cattle,  and  crops  in  wind-swept  districts  must  be 
admitted.  In  the  western  parts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
and  in  Wales,  the  gardens  of  the  gentry,  which  are 
surrounded  with  plantations  and  belts  of  trees,  are  remark- 
able for  the  luxuriance  and  variety  of  their  shrubs,  flowering 
plants,  fruit  trees,  and  vegetables,  rivalling  often  the 
choicest  gardens  of  the  Riviera.  Outside  these  sheltered 
grounds  the  neighbouring  peasants  in  their  exposed  fields 
can  never  fatten  cattle,  and  in  some  seasons  lose  by 
wind  a  great  part  of  their  corn  crops.  In  the  absence  of 
protection  from  wind,  they  are  unable  to  raise  fruit  like 
apples,  which  might  be  one  of  the  most  profitable  industries 
in  counties  like  Donegal,  Galway,  and  Kerry.  For  profitable 
horticulture  in  these  wind-swept  districts,  the  provision  of 
shelter  by  trees  is  essential. 


THE  SANITARY  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS    15 

Shelter  belts  are  of  great  economic  importance,  but  this 
view  of  the  subject  scarcely  comes  within  the  scope  of  this 
book.  I  may  advert  to  one  or  two  points  of  interest. 
The  utilisation  of  mountain  pasture  by  sheep  is  a  large 
industry.  In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  extensive  areas 
of  the  sheep  farms  are  covered  with  bracken  and  are 
consequently  of  no  value  at  present  for  grazing.  Bracken 
land  can  always  be  covered  with  trees.  It  is  believed  that 
of  the  total  acreage  of  mountain  pasture  in  the  Highlands, 
at  least  10  to  20  per  cent  could  be  afforested  without 
producing  any  reduction  in  the  number  of  sheep,  merely 
by  planting  up  the  bracken  areas.  Furthermore,  the 
shelter  provided  would  enable  the  grass  to  grow  better  and 
the  sheep  to  thrive  more,  and  would  actually  in  the  end 
increase  the  output  of  mutton  considerably. 

Throughout  Ireland  in  the  central  plain  and  other  low- 
lying  districts,  and  in  parts  of  Scotland,  there  are  extensive 
tracts  of  peat,  which  were  formed  after  the  retreat  of  the 
Ice  Sheet,  by  the  gradual  filling  up  of  the  shallow  lakes 
that  were  due  to  the  disturbance  of  the  natural  drainage 
by  glacial  deposits.  The  chilly  effects  of  these  peat-bogs  is 
well  known  (6).  They  act  as  centres  of  cold,  often  giving 
rise  to  severe  spring  frosts  in  the  adjoining  farm  land,  so 
that  early  kinds  of  potatoes  cannot  be  grown,  while  grass  is 
later  in  spring  in  the  pasture  fields.  In  order  to  mitigate 
these  effects,  peat-bogs  should  be  surrounded  with  plantations 
which  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  established  in  the  cut- 
over  margin  of  the  bog.  This  part  of  the  peat  moss  is 
either  already  drained  or  can  be  drained  at  a  small  expense  ; 
and  on  it  spruce,  maritime  pine,  Scots  pine,  and  larch  can 
be  profitably  grown  (7). 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  the  leaves  of  the  trees,  by 
their  absorption  of  carbon  dioxide  from  the  atmosphere  and 
their  exhalation  of  oxygen,  made  the  air  in  a  forest  healthier  ; 
but  Ebermayer  showed  that  the  oxygen  exhalation  of  a 
forest  in  proportion  to  the  needs  of  human  respiration  is 
insignificant,  and  is  perhaps  offset  by  the  increase  of  carbon 
dioxide   which  results  from  the  decomposition  of  organic 


16  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

matter  in  the  floor  of  the  forest  (8).  The  occurrence  of 
ozone  in  the  air  of  forests,  of  mountains,  and  of  seaside 
places,  and  its  absence  from  the  air  of  streets  in  towns  and 
of  inhabited  houses,  has  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  this  gas 
has  some  health-giving  properties.  It  may  purify  the  air 
by  oxidising  animal  or  vegetable  matter  in  the  course  of 
decay  and  by  uniting  with  the  gases  produced  by  their 
decomposition  ;  but  the  minute  quantity  of  ozone  found  in 
the  air  of  forests  can  have  little  effect  of  this  kind,  and  is 
evidently  of  no  hygienic  importance.  Recent  experiments 
have  shown  that  ozone  is  useless  as  a  disinfectant,  since 
the  quantity  necessary  to  kill  pathogenic  bacteria  is  very 
irritating  to  the  lungs  and  proves  fatal  to  animals 
experimented  on.  Hydrogen  peroxide  also  exists  in  minute 
quantities  in  the  air  of  forests ;  but  there  is  considerable 
difficulty  in  distinguishing  by  its  effects  this  substance  from 
ozone. 

Forests  depress  the  level  of  the  underground  water ;  and 
drainage  can  often  be  done  effectually  by  planting  trees. 
Diseases  like  phthisis,  bronchitis,  rheumatism,  neuralgia, 
might  then  be  diminished  in  forest  areas.  In  damp  marshy 
soils,  pools  are  common,  and  serve  as  breeding  grounds  for 
mosquitoes.  The  planting  of  Eucalyptus  trees  in  the  Cam- 
pagna  Romana  diminished  malaria  undoubtedly,  by  the 
permanent  lowering  of  the  subsoil  water,  which  dried  up 
the  pools  that  bred  the  mosquitoes.  The  role  of  the  forest 
in  draining  marshy  places,  where  water  stagnates  for  some 
months  of  the  year,  is  not  doubted  by  the  French,  who  have 
seen  this  effect  in  the  pine  forests  of  the  Landes  and  Sologne. 
In  the  forest  of  Mondon  near  Nancy  the  level  of  the  under- 
ground water  is  throughout  the  year  at  least  12  inches 
lower  than  in  the  cultivated  land  adjoining,  to  cite  only  one 
of  the  extensive  series  of  observations  that  were  carried  out 
by  Prof  E.  Henry  of  the  Nancy  School  of  Forestry.  Similar 
results  have  been  established  by  Ototzky  in  the  forests  of 
the  steppes  of  Voronej  province  in  Southern  Russia. 

The  most  important  hygienic  asset  of  the  forest  is  the 
purity  of  the  air  therein.     Smoke,  particles  of  dust,  injurious 


THE  SANITAEY  INFLUENCE  OF  FOKESTS    17 

gases,  and  bacteria,  which  are  all  found  in  the  air  of  cities, 
are  rare  or  completely  absent  in  that  of  forests.  Micro- 
organisms are  carried  into  the  air  from  ordinary  soils,  when 
their  upper  layers  are  dried  and  dust  is  formed,  which  is 
easily  moved  by  the  wind.  In  the  forest  there  is  less 
movement  of  air,  and  fewer  microbes  in  the  atmosphere,  as 
was  verified  by  the  observers  Serafini  and  Arata,  who  found 
all  kinds  of  bacteria  less  numerous  in  the  forest  air  than  on 
its  outskirts,  generally  23  to  28  times  less.  The  foliage 
of  the  trees  acts  as  a  kind  of  filter,  and  retains  the  dust  and 
other  particles  which  are  contained  in  the  air  that  passes 
over  a  forest  or  belt  of  trees. 

Apparently  no  experiments  have  been  carried  out  with 
respect  to  ionisation,  dust,  and  nuclei  in  the  air  over  forests. 
Prof.  A.  S.  Eve  in  a  letter  says :  "  The  factor  which 
differentiates  pure  bracing  air  from  relaxing  air  remains 
obscure.  No  doubt  the  absence  of  dust  and  nuclei  is  a 
factor,  but  there  are  probably  other  causes.  Air  which  is  well 
cleaned  by  rain  or  snow,  with  all  the  water  present  as  vapour, 
and  not  as  fog  or  mist,  is  bracing.  Scots  pine  woods  in 
Surrey  are  better  than  mixed  woods  in,  say,  Bedfordshire. 
In  many  cases  the  air  passes  from  one  state  to  the  other  in 
a  few  hours.      What  are  the  changes  which  take  place  ? " 

With  regard  to  the  soil  of  the  forest,  Ebermayer  showed 
that  it  contains  less  albuminoid  matter  and  salts  suitable 
for  bacterial  growth,  and  that  the  humus  produced  by  the 
growth  of  trees  is  antagonistic  to  pathogenic  bacteria,  which 
have  not  been  found  up  to  the  present  time  in  the  soil  of 
forests.  Both  the  soil  and  the  air  of  forests  may  then  be 
looked  upon  as  pure  from  the  point  of  view  of  health. 

It  is  stated  that  in  India  villages  surrounded  by  forests 
are  never  visited  by  cholera  ;  and  troops  are  removed  to 
forest  stations  to  arrest  the  disease.  Huff  el  (9)  confirms 
this  by  the  statement  that  the  town  of  Haguenau  in  Alsace, 
which  is  encircled  by  a  magnificent  forest  nearly  50,000 
acres  in  extent,  was  always  free  from  the  epidemics  of 
cholera  which  in  the  last  century  attacked  several  times 
the  other  towns  in  the  same  district.     The  classic  example 

c 


18  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

of  improvement  in  public  health  due  to  forest  conditions  is 
that  of  the  Landes  in  Gascony.  This  was  formerly  a  bare 
sandy  tract,  interspersed  with  marshes,  and  reputed  to  be 
the  most  unhealthy  region  in  France,  the  inhabitants  being 
very  subject  to  malarial  fever,  scrofula,  and  pellagra.  Since 
about  1850  the  greater  part  of  the  Landes,  some  1,800,000 
acres,  has  been  afforested  with  maritime  pine ;  and  these 
diseases  have  practically  disappeared,  and  the  district  is 
now  one  of  the  healthiest  in  France,  the  decrease  in  the 
death-rate  being  remarkable.  This  improvement  in  health 
is  no  doubt  due  to  various  causes,  such  as  the  drainage  of 
the  marshes,  the  better  supply  of  drinking  water,  etc.,  but 
the  presence  of  the  pine  forest  must  be  recognised  as  a 
factor  which  has  contributed  to  the  sanitation.  Even  the 
abundance  of  cheap  firewood  has  a  hygienic  effect,  as  every 
house  is  now  free  from  damp  all  the  year  round,  and  the 
labourers  are  able  to  dry  their  wet  clothes. 

Parks  in  cities  are  like  the  forests.  They  do  not  purify 
the  air,  as  was  formerly  believed,  by  the  functions  of  the 
leaves.  Nevertheless,  the  air  in  parks  is  purer  than  in  the 
dust-laden  atmosphere  of  the  streets  adjoining,  and  contains 
fewer  bacteria.  Belts  of  trees  act  as  screens,  and  intercept 
dust  and  other  impurities  coming  from  outside ;  and  it  is 
of  some  importance  on  this  account  to  make  a  wall  of  trees 
around  any  park  or  large  open  space  in  a  city. 

In  the  preceding  pages  the  direct  effects  of  the  forest 
condition  upon  hygiene  are  briefly  described ;  but  there  are 
many  ways  in  which  the  presence  of  woods  and  trees  affect 
indirectly  the  health  of  the  public,  and  these  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  subsequent  chapters.  A  great  deal  might  be 
said  in  praise  of  the  aesthetic  value  of  forests  and  trees, 
whicli  influence  favourably  the  spirits  and  consequently  the 
health  of  the  people ;  but  a  mere  mention  of  this  aspect  of 
the  subject  is  sufficient.      Few  will  deny  its  importance. 

NOTES 

1.   Frank  B."  Kellogg,  in  Proc.  Soc.  Amer.  Foresters,  x.  51  (1915),  says  it 
is  well  known  among  dairymen  having  ranches  in  Oregon  much  exposed  to 


THE  SANITAEY  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS    19 

the  north-west  wind  that  the  milk  flow  is  decreased  on  windy  days.  A  large 
dairy  owner  north  of  Smith  River,  who  weighs  each  day  the  amount  of  milk 
produced  by  his  herd,  states  that  in  spring  and  summer  the  amount  of  milk 
falls  off  as  much  as  1 6  per  cent  during  the  windiest  days  when  the  cattle  are 
pastured  on  exposed  fields. 

2.  Don  and  Chisholm,  Modern  Methods  of  Water  Purification,  p.  278, 
give  a  map  showing  the  way  in  which  salt  is  carried  inland  in  the  west  of 
Scotland.  See  also  W.  Barr,  in  Journal  of  Hygiene,  xiv.  119  (1914),  on  the 
laws  regulating  the  blowing  inland  of  salt  spray  and  spindrift. 

3.  Observations  were  made  by  L.  A.  Boodle  of  the  Jodrell  Laboratory, 
Kew,  on  the  foliage  of  seven  species  of  trees  and  shrubs  injured  at  Llanishen 
in  Wales,  five  miles  inland  from  the  sea,  by  a  severe  gale  accompanied  by  salt 
spray.  Examination  showed  that  the  leaves  of  all  the  species,  whether 
injured  or  uninjured,  contained  much  more  sodium  chloride  (common  salt) 
than  the  foliage  of  the  same  species  growing  in  Kew  Gardens.  Injured  and 
unharmed  parts  contained  the  same  amount  of  salt.  This  is  taken  up  by 
plants  from  the  soil,  which  in  districts  close  to  tlie  sea  and  for  some  miles 
inland  contains  much  sodium  chloride  brought  by  gales.  The  distribution 
of  the  bi'own  discoloration  on  the  leaves  indicated  wind-withering,  due  to  loss 
of  water,  and  did  not  seem  to  be  due  in  any  way  to  the  direct  elfect  of  salt 
spray.  C'upressns  nuicrocarpa  and  Eumiymus  jajxmica  were  unliarmed,  whilst 
Thuya,  yew,  Lawson  cypress,  common  laurel,  and  Portugal  laurel  were  all 
injured.     See  Gardeners'  Ohnmicle,  26th  Feb.  1916,  p.  119. 

4.  See  British  Medical  Journal,  12th  Jan.  1901,  p.  69,  23rd  May  1903, 
1>.  1189,  4th  Jan.  1905,  p.  62,  and  3rd  Nov.  1906,  p.  1165,  and  The  Lancet, 
7th  and  14th  Jan.  1905. 

5.  The  mountain  peat  ])robably  did  not  begin  to  form  till  late  in  the 
Bronze  Age.  In  the  Neolithic  period  the  temperature  seems  to  have  been 
4°  F.  higher  than  now,  and  the  British  Isles  enjoyed  a  continental  climate 
with  prevailing  cold  dry  winds  from  the  north-east.  After  this,  some  time 
during  the  Bronze  Ago,  the  climate  altered,  and  has  gradually  become  wetter 
with  prevailing  westerly  winds.  Plunkett,  in  Kilkenny  Journal  of  Archaeo- 
logy, xiii.  537  (1875),  states  that  the  cairns,  pillar  stones,  and  stone  circles  on 
Topped  Mountain  in  Fermanagh,  which  he  dates  as  1600  B.C.,  were  built  on 
the  original  rock  surface,  and  since  then  have  been  covered  with  peat  of  the 
thickness  of  eight  feet.  He  concludes  that  in  the  cairn-building  time  the 
climate  was  much  warmer  and  less  humid  than  now.  The  cairns  on  the 
Dublin  Mountains  are  also  covered  with  peat.  Tlie  existence  of  the  optimum 
climate  in  the  Neolithic  Period  and  early  Bronze  Age  has  been  proved  in 
other  ways. 

6.  See  Geo.  B.  Rigg,  in  Bot.  Gazette,  Ixi.  158  (1916),  where  comparative 
tables  are  given  of  air  and  soil  temperatures  of  peat-bogs  and  of  arable  land 
adjoining. 

7.  See  A.  Henry,  "AfTorestation  of  Peat- Bogs  and  Sand-Dunes,"  in  Country 
Life,  22nd  April  1916,  p.  497.  This  article  contains  an  account  of  a  cheap 
method  of  establishing  maritime  pine  by  sowing  seed  on  cut-over  bog  at 
Abbeyleix.  It  was  republished,  without  the  illustrations,  in  a  book  by  P. 
Anderson  Graham,  Reclaiming  the  Waste,  pp.  118-127  (1916). 

8.  See  Femow,  U.S.  Forestry  Bulletin,  No.  7,  p.  170  (1893),  and 
Economics  of  Forestry,  p.  77  (1902). 

9.  J^conomie  Forestitre,  i.  199,  note  (1904). 


CHAPTEE   III 

FORESTS    AS    SITES    FOR    SANATORIA 

As  stated  above,  Ebermayer  showed  that  forest  air,  like 
that  of  the  seas  and  mountains,  is  free  from  injurious  gases, 
dust,  particles,  and  bacteria.  The  forest  soil  is  hygienically 
pure.  These  facts  are  excellent  reasons  for  locating  sanatoria 
for  tuberculous  patients  and  convalescent  homes  in  forest 
districts  (Fig.  1).  Such  patients  require  open-air  treat- 
ment, which  necessitates  protection  against  cold  or  severe 
wind.  Wind  raises  dust,  which  increases  cough  and  dyspnoea 
if  the  lungs  are  affected  (1).  The  progress  of  patients  is 
often  best  in  mountain  resorts  in  winter,  when  the  snow 
lying  on  the  ground  prevents  dust.  Even  when  forests  are 
not  accessible,  the  occurrence  of  belts  of  trees  around  the 
grounds  of  sanatoria  are  useful  for  protection  against  wind. 
Walks  in  a  wooded  country  are  most  agreeable,  and  the 
psychic  effect  of  beautiful  woodland  scenery  is  beneficial 
in  many  cases  of  illness.  As  hay  fever  is  due  to  a  peculiar 
poison  in  the  pollen  of  certain  grasses  and  closely  allied 
plants,  places  where  these  plants  are  rare  or  absent,  like 
pine  forests  and  heaths,  may  be  resorted  to  with  advantage 
by  patients  suffering  from  this  distressing  malady  (2). 

It  has  been  the  universal  belief,  from  ancient  times  till 
now,  that  forests  of  conifers  exercise  a  beneficial  and  curative 
effect  on  consumptive  patients.  The  physicians  of  Kome, 
in  the  time  of  the  Caesars,  sent  patients  with  ulcerated 
lungs  to  the  pine  forests  of  Libya.  Pliny  (3),  in  a  state- 
ment that  sounds  quite  modern,  remarks :  "  Forests,  especially 


-Slcciiiui^  Clialuts  in  Wood  at  Liiifonl  Sauatoiiuni,  Xcw  Forest. 
(From  Liiiford  .iuiKitorium  Pam-phhl .) 


rOKESTS  AS  SITES  FOR  SANATORIA         21 

those  which  abound  in  pitch  and  balsam,  are  most  beneficial 
to  consumptives  or  to  those  who  do  not  gather  strength 
after  a  long  illness ;  and  they  are  of  more  value  than  a 
voyage  to  Egypt."  Most  of  the  descriptions  in  text-books  (4) 
of  sanatoria  on  the  continent,  and  even  in  the  British 
Isles,  lay  stress  on  the  woodland  or  forest  nature  of  the 
situation.  In  the  United  States  Dr,  A.  L.  Loomis  of  New 
York  was  one  of  the  first  to  send  tuberculous  patients 
systematically  to  the  Adirondack  Forest,  that  they  might 
have  the  benefit  of  the  purest  and  most  invigorating  air  (5). 

The  main  features  of  the  open-air  treatment  of  phthisis, 
perhaps  insisted  on  earliest  by  Dr.  Geo.  Bodington  of  Sutton 
Ooldfield,  Warwickshire,  in  1840,  and  by  Dr.  Henry 
MacCormac  of  Belfast  in  1856,  were  first  systematised  at 
the  Nordrach  Colonic  Sanatorium,  which,  founded  originally 
by  Dr.  Walther,  was  acquired  by  the  Baden  Insurance 
Company  in  1908.  "It  is  a  hamlet,  not  an  institution, 
in  a  sheltered  valley  surrounded  by  pine-clad  heights  in 
the  midst  of  the  Black  Forest."  The  Nordrach  treatment 
consists  in  an  absolutely  open-air  life,  day  and  night,  and 
in  sunshine,  fog,  and  rain  ;  abundant  diet ;  rest  before 
meals ;  and  exercise  regulated  by  the  bodily  temperature. 
Graduated  labour,  at  ordinary  kinds  of  outdoor  work,  seems 
to  be  the  best  form  of  exercise  (6),  and  has  been  introduced 
at  the  Brompton  Hospital  Sanatorium  at  Frimley,  In  pine 
forests  these  conditions  are  readily  satisfied,  as  patients  get 
pure  air  and  an  attractive  milieu  for  exercise,  while  useful 
and  interesting  forestry  work  can  be  carried  on  in  the 
winter.  Intense  cold,  fogs,  etc.,  do  not  interfere  with  the 
open-air  treatment ;  but  this  could  not  be  carried  on  without 
danger  in  windy  places. 

Walther  believed  in  the  paramount  importance  of  purity 
of  air,  and  associated  with  it  paucity  of  population,  which 
is  the  rule  in  forest  districts.  Where  pine  trees  abound, 
the  soil  is  usually  dry  and  is  often  sandy.  A  treeless  site 
is  a  great  disadvantage  for  a  sanatorium ;  but  the  trees 
must  not  be  crowded  around  the  building  so  as  to  interfere 
with  ventilation. 


22  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

There  now  appears  to  be  a  reaction  against  the  sup- 
posed beneficial  effect  of  pine  forests,  based,  I  suppose,  on 
Prof.  Leonard  Hill's  campaign  for  unlimited  movement  of 
the  air  (7).  It  will  be  best  for  me  to  give  some  extracts 
from  letters  received  from  medical  superintendents  of  noted 
sanatoria. 

Dr.  David  Lawson  tells  me  that  "  Dr.  Walther  adver- 
tised the  merits  of  the  situation  of  the  Nordrach  Sanatorium 
in  a  pine  district,  where  the  terebene  vapours,  exuded  more 
particularly  in  the  spring  months,  added  a  special  value 
to  treatment  obtained  there,  as  contrasted  with  that  avail- 
able at  Falkenstein  and  other  rival  institutions  which  were 
not  located  in  pine  forests.  In  the  early  days  of  founding 
sanatoria  in  this  country  we  accepted  without  examination 
the  claims  made  for  the  specific  benefits  of  treatment  in 
pine  districts.  Personally  I  made  a  point  of  it  to  such 
an  extent  that  I  selected  a  pine  wood  in  which  to  build 
Nordrach-on-Dee,  Banchory.  Whether  the  claim  is  right 
or  wrong  I  cannot  now  say.  I  am  perfectly  convinced, 
however,  that  a  sanatorium  (8)  ought  to  be  in  its  immediate 
vicinity  surrounded  by  trees  to  provide  shelter  from  strong 
winds  in  winter  which  are  injurious  to  the  less  robust 
patients.  Pine  forests  for  the  most  part  are  located  in 
healthy  districts,  far  removed  from  large  centres  of  popula- 
tion, and  are  therefore  usually  associated  with  those  genial 
atmospheric  conditions  which  undoubtedly  have  a  very  high 
value  in  the  open-air  treatment  of  phthisis." 

Dr.  W.  0.  Meek,  of  the  Brompton  Hospital  Sanatorium  at 
Frimley,  says :  "  At  one  time  the  presence  of  Scots  fir  trees 
was  considered  of  value  on  account  of  the  exhalations  of 
turpentine,  etc.  I  think  this  idea  is  now  almost  obsolete. 
Scots  firs  seem  to  grow  on  elevated  gravelly  soils  which  are 
very  suitable  for  sanatoria ;  and  they  are  also  very  valuable 
as  a  shelter  from  wind  and  rain  both  winter  and  summer." 

Both  these  experienced  men  beheve  in  the  value  of  pine 
woods  as  shelter;  let  us  hear  the  other  side.  Dr.  F. 
Kincaid  Etlinger,  Medical  Superintendent  of  the  Pinewood 
Sanatorium,  Wokingham,  writes  to  me  :  "  When  I  came  here, 


FOKESTS  AS  SITES  FOR  SANATORIA         23 

nearly  four  years  ago,  the  estate  of  some  80  acres  was 
densely  covered  with  pines,  growing  close  up  to  the  buildings 
on  all  sides.  As  a  result,  the  atmosphere  was  gloomy  and 
depressing,  and  the  ground  immediately  surrounding  the 
sanatorium  was  cold  and  damp,  being  too  well  sheltered 
from  wind  and  sun.  The  results  of  treatment  in  the 
sanatorium  were  not  good,  and  there  was  a  remarkable  pre- 
valence of  a  special  symptom,  namely,  hemorrhage  from 
the  lungs.  After  discussion  with  Prof.  Leonard  Hill,  I 
concluded  that  it  was  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the 
patients  that  the  grounds  surrounding  the  sanatorium  should 
be  heroically  cleared  of  trees  to  as  great  a  distance  as 
possible.  This  has  been  done.  The  estate  is  now  largely 
open  ground,  and  many  acres  of  pinewoods  on  the  surround- 
ing estates  have  also  been  cleared.  The  resulting  improve- 
ment is  quite  definite.  Sun  and  wind  have  freer  access  to 
the  sanatorium.  The  general  atmosphere  has  been  greatly 
altered,  and  the  ground  immediately  surrounding  the 
buildings  is  drier  and  warmer.  The  results  of  treatment 
are  much  more  satisfactory,  and  the  incidence  of  the  special 
symptom  referred  to  above  has  decreased  to  a  striking 
extent,  and  is  no  longer  the  serious  matter  which  it  was 
during  the  earlier  days  of  the  sanatorium."  Dr.  Etlinger  is 
of  opinion  that  there  is  no  evidence  that  pine  trees  per  se 
have  any  curative  effect  on  consumption ;  and  that  the 
value  of  pines  in  the  cure  of  phthisis  depends  on  the  fact 
that  they  are  the  only  trees  which  provide  shelter  at  high 
altitudes ;  but  that  "  low  altitude  may  be  quite  satisfactory, 
provided  that  the  country  for  many  miles  around  is  equally 
low  or  lower  and  very  barren  of  trees." 

Dr.  Etlinger  believes  with  Prof.  Leonard  Hill  that  the 
rationale  of  the  open-air  life  in  the  treatment  of  consumption 
lies  in  the  improvement  which  takes  place  in  general  health 
owing  to  constant  exposure  to  moving  air  rather  than  to 
fresh  air.  Prof.  Leonard  Hill  is  opposed  to  the  growing  of 
trees  and  close  shrubberies  at  all  near  buildings. 

Dr.  Horace  Dobell,  who  was  in  practice  for  many  years 
at  Bournemouth,  beUeved  strongly  in  the  curative  effect  on 


24  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

pulmonary  diseases  of  the  pine  plantations,  which  are  so 
extensive  in  and  around  this  famous  health  resort  (Fig. 
2).  In  his  book  on  The  Medical  Aspect  of  Bournemouth, 
published  in  1886,  he  devotes  a  chapter  to  this  subject. 
He  recognised  the  useful  effect  of  trees  as  the  best  form  of 
shelter  from  wind,  being  much  superior  to  walls,  banks, 
and  rocks  for  that  purpose,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the 
back  wind  which  ricochets  from  these  obstructions,  and  is 
often  more  destructive  than  the  direct  wind.  Moreover, 
trees  admit  free  circulation  of  air.  He  considered,  however, 
that  the  main  hygienic  value  of  pines  was  due  to  the 
emanations  from  their  leaves,  which  caused  the  atmosphere 
of  a  pine  forest  to  have  decided  antiseptic  and  disinfectant 
properties. 

Dr.  A.  D.  Edwards,  Medical  Officer  of  Health,  Bourne- 
mouth, thinks  that  emanations  from  the  pine  trees  largely 
planted  there  "  have  a  cleansing  effect  on  the  atmosphere, 
and  also  have  a  sedative  effect  on  the  respiratory  mucous 
membrane.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  emanations  have 
any  effect  on  the  actual  germs,  as  the  proportion  of  turpen- 
tine in  the  atmosphere  would  be  too  small  to  have  any 
effect." 

I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  statistics  to  show  the 
incidence  of  tuberculosis  in  pine  districts  ;  and  such  statistics 
would  be  valueless,  as  there  are  so  many  other  factors  in- 
volved, such  as  ventilation  and  size  of  the  bedrooms  used 
by  the  inhabitants  in  such  districts. 

It  is  needless  to  enter  into  a  defence  of  the  beneficial 
effects  of  the  shelter  afforded  by  forests  and  plantations. 
In  the  country,  whatever  may  be  the  case  in  large  towns, 
the  stagnation  of  the  air  so  ardently  combated  by  Prof. 
Leonard  Hill  does  not  exist,  except  in  low-lying  and  often 
badly  drained  depressions,  where  no  one  would  locate  a 
sanatorium.  There  is  no  fear  of  stagnation  of  air  in  the 
British  Isles,  even  if  the  proper  share  of  forests  was 
established.  The  question,  however,  remains,  what  are  the 
emanations  of  pine  forests,  and  what  effect  have  they,  if 
any,  on  phthisis  ?     A  statement  that  "  the  balsamic  emana- 


FOKESTS  AS  SITES  FOE  SANATOEIA         25 

tions  are  so  dilute  that  their  effect  is  more  psychical  than 
physical  "  is  not  scientific. 

Most  people  write  of  the  turpentine  emanations  of  pine 
forests,  but  the  large  amount  of  resin  and  turpentine  stored 
in  the  wood  and  bark  of  the  steins  and  branches  is  not 
exhaled  into  the  atmosphere,  except  in  the  case  of  wounds 
or  disease  of  the  trees,  which  cause  a  flow  of  resin.  The 
odour  of  pine  woods  is  due,  in  great  measure,  to  a  volatile 
oil  contained  in  the  leaves.  This  is  variable  in  composition, 
containing  pinene  (the  main  or  often  sole  constituent  of 
turpentine  oil),  sylvestrene,  phellandrene,  and  a  notable 
percentage  of  bornyl  acetate,  which  gives  to  it  a  character- 
istic odour.  Pine-needle  oil,  produced  by  distillation,  is  a 
clear  odourless  fluid  used  as  a  deodorant  in  baths,  hospitals, 
etc.,  and  is  sold  all  over  the  world  for  rheumatic  com- 
plaints (9). 

No  scientific  study  of  the  odours  of  the  air  from  a 
therapeutic  point  of  view  has,  I  believe,  ever  been  attempted. 
We  are,  moreover,  quite  in  the  dark  as  to  the  curative  effect 
of  change  of  air  in  many  cases  of  illness,  which  is  in  our 
ignorance  ascribed  to  psychic  causes. 

Two  suggestions  have  been  made  in  explanation  of  the 
curative  effects  of  the  odours  of  pines  on  tubercular  diseases 
of  the  lungs.  Dr.  Horace  Dobell  relied  on  Kingzett's  ex- 
periments (10)  on  the  oxidation  of  volatile  oils  under  the 
influence  of  air  and  moisture,  when  peroxide  of  hydrogen 
and  camphoric  acid  were  produced,  the  former  being  a 
powerful  disinfectant  and  the  latter  an  antiseptic.  The 
volatile  oil  exhaled  by  pines  being  converted  into  these 
agents  was  supposed  to  render  the  atmosphere  destructive 
to  bacteria.  No  such  germicidal  action  of  the  air  in  pine 
forests  has,  however,  been  proved  to  take  place ;  and  Dr. 
Dobell's  theory  is  no  longer  tenable. 

The  researches  in  phagocytosis  carried  on  by  Prof. 
Hamburger  (11)  of  Groningen  University,  Holland,  possibly 
afford  an  explanation  of  the  therapeutic  effects  of  the  odours 
of  pine  forests.  He  exposes  on  slides  under  the  micro- 
scope drops  of    blood   which  have    been  put   into  various 


26  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

media  containing  minute  particles  of  carbon.  Turpentine 
and  allied  substances,  used  in  minute  quantities  as  media, 
greatly  increase  the  number  of  carbon  particles  that  are 
swallowed  by  the  leucocytes.  In  a  dilution  of  1  :  100,000 
an  increase  was  found  of  2 4' 7  per  cent.  In  the  presence 
of  turpentine  the  percentage  of  the  white  cells  that  have 
taken  in  carbon  is  greater  than  in  the  case  where  no 
turpentine  is  added.  This  explains  the  remedial  action  of 
a  subcutaneous  injection  of  turpentine  in  the  treatment  of 
pneumonia  in  horses,  as  minute  quantities  of  the  turpentine, 
dissolving  in  the  lymph  of  the  tissue  spaces  and  afterwards 
entering  the  blood  circulation,  promote  the  phagocytic 
power  of  the  white  corpuscles  in  the  lung. 

Hamburger  says  that  the  cause  of  the  remarkable  in- 
fluence of  a  sojourn  in  high  mountain  regions  on  metabolism, 
on  sleep,  and  on  the  state  of  the  mind  is  entirely  unknown. 
It  has  been  proved  that  these  phenomena  are  not  due  to  the 
altitude  as  such,  for  in  balloons  they  do  not  occur,  nor  are 
they  found  in  all  mountain  regions,  but  only  in  those  parts 
with  coniferous  woods.  He  thinks  that  it  is  due  to  the 
stimulating  action  of  the  odour  of  resin,  turpentine,  etc.,  on 
the  nerve  cells.  The  exhalations  of  the  trees  reach  the 
lungs  by  inspiration,  and  are  transported  by  the  blood 
current  through  the  whole  body,  and  in  consequence  to  the 
nerve  cells,  thus  promoting  metabolism,  sleep,  etc.  May 
not  such  vapours,  however,  brought  directly  into  contact  with 
the  white  blood  corpuscles  in  the  lungs  by  every  breath 
taken  in,  stimulate  these  to  vigorous  attacks  on  the  tuber- 
culosis bacteria  ? 

It  is  probable  then  that  Pliny  was  right  in  his  view  of 
the  curative  influence  of  pine  forests ;  but  at  the  same  time 
we  must  not  forget  the  injurious  effect  of  screens  of  trees 
and  shrubs  close  to  a  dwelling  in  blocking  out  sunshine 
and  in  stagnating  the  air. 

As  forestry  work,  varied  in  character  and  in  muscular 
effort,  can  be  carried  on  out-of-doors  in  all  seasons,  it  is  now 
utilised  in  the  sanatorium  treatment  of  consumptive  patients. 
This  is  one  of  the  features  of  the  interesting  afforestation 


FOEESTS  AS  SITES  FOE  SANATOEIA         27 

scheme  (12)  devised  by  the  authorities  of  Mid-Lanark  for 
their  water  catchment  area  at  Camps,  in  conjimction  with 
the  formation  of  a  large  permanent  nursery  at  Hairmyres. 
This  scheme  will  serve  many  useful  purposes,  some  of  which 
are  novel.  The  Middle  Ward  of  Lanark  District  Committee 
have  established  what  is  known  as  the  Hairmyres  Colony 
for  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis.  Experience  has  shown 
that  treatment  in  an  ordinary  sanatorium  for  a  few  months 
gives  disappointing  results  in  a  large  percentage  of  cases. 
The  colony  system  provides  along  economic  lines  for  an 
extension  of  treatment  to  patients  who  are  liable  to  relapse 
on  return  to  their  former  unhealthy  environment.  The 
Hairmyres  Colony  embraces  an  area  of  about  200  acres, 
and  includes  several  working  industries,  with  a  competent 
head  to  give  instruction  in  each  department.  The  colony 
was  founded  to  admit  two  classes  of  patients,  namely, 
children  and  selected  adult  cases  who  have  shown  such 
improvement  in  other  sanatoria  that  a  further  treatment  of 
a  special  character  is  desirable.  This  includes  special  train- 
ing in  work  on  the  land,  market  gardening,  the  rearing  of 
pigs  and  poultry,  and  the  early  stages  of  forestry.  Children 
work  in  the  Forest  Nursery  for  two  hours  daily  in  suitable 
weather,  and  adult  patients  do  a  full  day's  work. 

The  practical  training  in  forestry  embraces  all  branches 
of  nursery  work,  such  as  raising  forest  trees,  shrubs,  and 
ornamental  plants  in  Hairmyres  nursery,  and  felling  and 
conversion  of  timber  on  the  Hairmyres  estate  during  the 
winter  months.  On  certain  parts  of  the  estate,  planting 
trees  on  peat  and  underplanting  of  old  plantations  are 
carried  out,  operations  which  are  valuable  from  the  point  of 
view  of  training  men  in  forestry.  Lecture  courses  at  Hair- 
myres are  arranged  in  connection  with  the  Forestry  De- 
partment of  the  West  of  Scotland  Agricultural  College, 
Glasgow.  When  the  scheme  is  in  full  working  order,  con- 
valescent tuberculous  patients  no  longer  requiring  close 
medical  supervision  will  be  transferred  from  the  Hairmyres 
Colony  to  the  Camps  area.  Up  to  June  1918  only  two 
have  been  sent.     Both  w^ere  notified  cases  of  tuberculosis 


28  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

that  had  been  under  treatment  for  about  a  year.  They  did 
so  well  at  Camps  that  when  they  reported  for  military 
service  they  were  accepted  and  are  now  in  the  army.  The 
high  altitude  of  Camps  is  suitable  for  cases  of  tuberculosis 
that  have  passed  the  acute  stage  and  those  with  catarrhal 
complications. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  scheme  admirably  fills  two 
functions.  It  provides  the  proper  kind  of  employment  that 
aids  in  the  cure  of  tuberculous  patients ;  and  it  forms  a 
practical  training  centre  for  such  patients  as  intend  making 
forestry  their  avocation  in  the  future.  Another  useful  and 
patriotic  work  embraced  in  the  scheme  is  the  teaching  and 
employment  in  forestry  work  of  disabled  soldiers,  who,  when 
their  training  is  completed  at  Camps,  will  be  placed  on 
estates  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  through  the  co- 
operation of  the  Eoyal  Scottish  Arboricultural  Society. 

At  present  (May  1918)  the  nursery  at  Hairmyres, 
which  was  started  in  October  1913,  is  about  12  acres  in 
extent.  In  addition  there  is  a  demonstration  wood  and 
planting  ground  attached,  amounting  to  some  20  acres. 
About  15  students  from  the  West  of  Scotland  Agri- 
cultural College  in  Glasgow,  6  discharged  soldiers  who 
are  being  trained  in  forestry,  and  20  to  25  child 
patients  are  engaged  in  nursery  work.  In  addition  to 
the  above,  a  four-weeks'  training  course  in  forestry  for 
women  is  being  conducted ;  and  40  trained  women,  who 
have  passed  through  this  course,  have  been  sent  out  to 
various  estates.  These  women  are  selected  by  the  Ministry 
of  Labour ;  and,  in  addition  to  nursery  work,  they  are  taken 
to  felling  areas  in  the  vicinity,  where  they  are  trained  in  all 
branches  of  timber  work. 

Dr.  Macpherson,  the  Superintendent  Physician,  states 
that  the  Forestry  Department  at  Hairmyres  is  especially 
useful  in  providing  different  grades  of  labour  for  convalescent 
tuberculous  patients.  It  is  also  a  most  suitable  occupation 
for  patients  convalescent  from  neurasthenia,  whether  due  to 
shell-shock  or  other  causes,  or  for  the  soldier  who  has  been 
gassed.      Both  patients  and  ordinary  workers  derive  much 


FOKESTS  AS  SITES  FOE  SANATOEIA         29 

improvement  in  health  from  forestry  work.  It  is  valuable 
as  a  sedative  in  excitable  cases,  and  as  a  stimulant  to 
respiration  and  circulation  in  those  convalescent  from  acute 
and  chronic  illnesses. 

All  this  special  work  at  Hairmyres  and  on  the  Camps 
water  catchment  area  will  not  of  course  interfere  with  the 
main  objects  of  tlie  scheme,  which  is  defined  as  "  the  con- 
servation and  maintenance  of  the  purity  of  the  water  supply." 
The  afforestation  will  have  as  another  object  the  production 
of  timber  suitable  for  the  extensive  local  markets  in  the 
Lanarkshire  coal-fields  and  the  city  of  Glasgow.  The  work- 
ing plan  provides  for  this  object  with  the  minimum  disturb- 
ance to  sheep-graziug  and  shooting.  No  considerations, 
however,  of  sporting  interests  or  of  amenity  will  influence 
the  forest  policy,  which  is  to  produce  the  greatest  net  income 
from  timber  and  wood. 

The  Camps  water  catchment  area  is  situated  in  Crawford 
Parish,  Lanarkshire,  and  has  an  extent  of  6800  acres,  com- 
prising the  gathering  ground  of  the  Camps  and  Grains 
streams.  This  area,  with  all  rights,  is  the  sole  property  of 
the  County  Council  of  Lanarkshire  and  of  the  District 
Committee  of  the  Middle  Ward  of  this  county.  It  consists 
of  an  elevated  tableland,  at  an  average  elevation  of  1500 
feet,  composed  of  rounded  hills  covered  with  soil  and  grass 
or  heather.  The  valleys  are  deeply  cut  down  to  levels  of 
800  or  900  feet  in  places.  In  the  valleys  erosion  is  taking 
place,  including  the  breaking  away  of  peat,  thus  tending  to 
silt  up  the  reservoir  and  render  the  water  supply  impure. 
Probably  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  whole  area  will 
ever  be  afforested.  It  is  proposed  in  no  case  to  plant  above 
the  1500  feet  contour  line,  the  considerable  area  above  this 
line  being  permanently  reserved  for  grazing  and  shooting. 
As  soon  as  possible  a  belt  of  plantations  will  be  established 
on  the  sides  of  the  streams  and  reservoirs.  Some  land  good 
for  wintering  sheep  will  be  immediately  taken  up  for  plant- 
ing ;  but  when  the  scheme  has  been  established,  as  soon  as 
each  block  of  wintering  ground  is  enclosed,  there  will  be  a 
considerable  block  of  forest  thrown  open  to  sheep.     This 


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Fig.  3.— Mid- Lanark  :  Camps  Catchment  Area  Afforestation  Scheme. 


rOEESTS  AS  SITES  FOR  SANATORIA         31 

will  have  an  enhanced  wintering  value  on  account  of  the 
shelter  afforded  by  the  plantations.  The  soil  all  over  is  of  a 
good  depth  ;  and  at  elevations  of  1400  feet  a  uniform  depth 
of  1 8  to  24  inches  is  obtained.  The  land  is  used  for  grazing 
black-faced  sheep  entirely ;  and  the  natural  herbage  is  heather 
and  short  hill  grasses,  with  bracken  in  places.  There  are 
no  woods  on  the  area  ;  but  there  are  two  plantations,  both 
55  years  old,  on  adjacent  similar  land.  The  Campside 
wood  of  Scots  pine,  at  900  feet  elevation,  with  a  volume  of 
4000  cubic  feet  per  acre,  indicates  third  quality  for  this 
species ;  while  the  Tee  wood  of  spruce,  at  an  elevation  of 
1200  feet,  has  a  volume  of  5360  cubic  feet  of  timber  and 
small  wood  per  acre,  indicating  second-class  site  for  spruce. 
These  woods  are  not,  however,  fully  stocked ;  and  more 
timber  would  be  grown  under  a  proper  system  of  sylviculture. 
As  elsewhere,  the  fact  is  established  that  spruce  is  the 
timber-producing  tree  at  high  altitudes.  This  species  mixed 
with  silver  fir  will  be  the  main  crop.  Larch  and  Douglas 
fir  will  be  planted  on  selected  sites.  For  the  first  five  years 
the  plan  provides  for  527  acres  to  be  taken  in  hand  and 
planted.  These  particulars  show  how  much  care  has  been 
taken  in  the  drafting  of  the  Camps  Afforestation  Scheme  by 
^  Mr.  G.  P.  Gordon ;  and  great  praise  is  also  due  to  the 
public  spirit  and  large  views  of  the  Mid-Lanark  District 
Committee. 

Planting  was  begun  on  the  Camps  area  in  March  1914, 
and  two  nurseries  have  also  been  established.  At  the  end 
of  May  1918  the  plantations  amounted  to  350  acres,  and 
included  163  acres  of  spruce,  105  acres  of  larch,  and  43 
acres  of  Scots  pine.  All  the  planting  was  done  by  German 
prisoners. 

In  1915-1916  the  Development  Commissioners  recom- 
mended a  loan  of  £4962  to  the  District  Committee  of  the 
Middle  Ward  of  the  County  of  Lanark  in  aid  of  the  afforesta- 
tion of  1327  acres  of  the  water  catchment  area  at  Camps. 
The  Treasury,  however,  did  not  assent  to  this  recommenda- 
tion in  view  of  the  urgent  necessity  for  conserving  the 
resources  of  the  country  for  war  purposes ;  but  sanctioned 


32  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

a  loan  of  £600  in  order  to  save  the  Committee  from  loss 
on  the  plants  already  purchased  in  connection  with  the 
scheme,  and  reserved  for  a  later  date  consideration  of  the 
scheme  as  a  whole. 

NOTES 

1.  A.  Haviland,  quoted  by  Weber,  Climatotherapy ,  p.  47,  says : 
"Regions  exposed  to  high  winds  have  increased  mortality  from  phthisis, 
as  people  stay  indoors  more  and  in  stuffy  rooms.  High  winds  hurt  feeble 
people  and  persons  suffering  from  bronchial  affections." 

2.  See  Glegg,  in  Journal  of  Hygiene,  1904,  pp.  369-403. 

3.  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxiv.  cap.  6. 

4.  See  F.  Rufenacht  Waters,  Sanatoria  for  the  Tuberctilous  (1913)  ; 
Weber,  Climatotherapy  ;  Wood,  Health  Resorts,  etc. 

5.  See  Dr.  Guy  Hinsdale,  Atmospheric  Air  in  relation  to  Tuberculosis,  \). 
3  (Smithsonian  Institution,  AVashington,  1914).  This  book  is  an  admirable 
resume  of  the  subject,  beautifully  illustrated. 

6.  The  scientific  basis  of  this  treatment  is  set  forth  by  Dr.  A.  C.  Inman, 
On  the  Effect  of  Exercise  on  the  Opsonic  Index  of  Patients  suffering  from 
Pulmonary  Tuherculosis  ;  a  study  made  possible  by  the  brilliant  work  of  Sir 
Almroth  Wright,  who  showed  that  nature  cures  bacterial  infections  through 
auto-inoculation. 

7.  See  Local  Government  Reports,  New  Series,  No.  100  ;  Report  on 
Ventilation  and  Effect  of  Open  Air  and  Wind,  by  Leonard  Hill  (1914). 

8.  In  the  Nordrach-on-Dee  Sanatorium  booklet,  the  advantages  of  the  site 
in  a  pine  forest  are  insisted  upon.  The  Deeside  atmosphere  is  claimed  to 
possess  relative  dryness,  bracing  qualities,  and  exceeding  richness  in  ozone. 
The  other  advantages  are  :  "its  comparatively  mild  temperature  during  the 
winter  months  ;  the  high  percentage  of  sunshine  which  prevails  ;  and  the 
therapeutic  vapours  exhaled  by  the  pine  forests." 

9.  See  S.  J.  Record,  in  Scientific  American,  22nd  January  1916,  p.  200. 
French  turpentine  oil  is  almost  entirely  laevopinene,  and  American  turpentine 
oil  nearly  all  dextropinene. 

10.  Kingzett,  Natures  Hygiene,  pp.  185-188  (1880). 

11.  See  British  Medical  Journal,  8th  Jan.  1916,  p.  37,  and  Proc.  Royal 
Society  of  Netherlands,  xvi.  609  (1913). 

12.  See  Mr.  G.  P.  Gordon's  account  of  the  scheme  in  Trans.  Roy.  Scot. 
Arbor.  Soc.  xxix.  pp.  55-62  (1915).  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Gordon  for  a 
copy  of  the  Working  Plan  of  Camps  Area  and  Hairmyres  Nursery,  as  well  as 
for  many  beautiful  photogi-aphs  and  lantern  slides  illustrating  the  splendid 
work,  in  the  inauguration  and  carrying  out  of  which  he  has  taken  a  large 
part. 


CHAPTER   IV 

PARKS    IN    TOWNS    AND    MUNICIPAL    FORESTS 

The  real  history  of  public  parks  in  towns  begins  about 
1840.  Before  that  time  there  were  no  municipal  parks, 
except  perhaps  Glasgow  Green.  The  parks  of  London 
were  originally  the  private  property  of  the  Crown,  and, 
besides,  were  in  early  days  not  open  spaces  preserved  in 
the  city,  but  were  far  away  from  it  in  the  country.  St. 
James  Park,  Green  Park,  Hyde  Park,  and  Kensington 
Gardens  were  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  city  of 
London.  Even  Glasgow  College  Green  was  originally 
outside  the  city.  In  1845  the  Health  of  Towns  Com- 
missioners made  recommendations  about  public  parks  and 
open  spaces,  which  laid  the  foundations  of  modern  pro- 
gress in  this  important  measure  of  public  hygiene.  The 
Commissioners  said :  "  In  our  enquiry  into  the  sanitary 
condition  of  large  cities  and  populous  districts,  where  a  high 
rate  of  mortality  and  much  disease  is  prevalent,  we  have 
noticed  the  general  want  of  any  public  walks,  which  might 
enable  the  middle  and  poorer  classes  to  have  the  advantage 
of  fresh  air  and  exercise  in  their  occasional  hours  of  leisure. 
With  regard  to  all  open  spaces,  especially  well-ordered 
squares  ornamented  by  trees  or  gardens,  which  already 
exist  in  the  metropolis  and  large  towns,  we  strongly 
recommend  their  preservation  from  any  encroachment  by 
public  or  private  buildings.  Although  not  open  to  the 
public,  they  contribute  largely  to  the  general  health  of 
the  people.  The  great  towns  of  Liverpool,  Manchester, 
33  D 


34  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Birmingham,  Leeds,  and  many  others  have  at  present 
(1845)  no  public  walks.  Shrewsbury,  Newcastle-under- 
Lyme,  Derby,  and  few  more  possess  them.  The  metropolis 
except  at  the  west  and  north-west,  where  the  different 
parks  minister  so  much  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the 
people,  has  no  public  walks,  though  Victoria  Park,  now  in 
progress,  will  supply  the  want  to  the  east.  The  large 
populations  of  South wark  and  Lambeth  to  the  south  are 
yet  without  such  a  source  of  enjoyment  and  salubrity. 
The  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1833 
recommended  that  steps  should  be  taken  to  supply  the 
want.  In  1840  the  sum  of  £40,000  was  voted  by 
Parliament  to  assist  local  efforts  for  this  purpose  in 
provincial  towns,  and  a  few  places  have  had  grants  from 
this  sum." 

The  Commissioners  in  conclusion  strongly  recommended 
"  that  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  public  walks,  in 
addition  to  legal  facilities,  the  local  administrative  body 
be  empowered  to  raise  the  necessary  funds  for  the  manage- 
ment and  care  of  the  walks  when  established." 

Prof  James  Thomson  in  a  lecture  (1)  at  Belfast  on 
2nd  March  1852,  "  On  Public  Parks  in  Connection  with 
Large  Towns,"  said  that  Manchester  then  had  three  parks, 
though  at  the  time  of  the  Commissioners'  report  it  had  none, 
and  Victoria  Park  in  the  east  of  London  had  just  been  opened. 
This  lecture  led  to  the  purchase,  for  the  town  of  Belfast,  of 
the  large  Ormeau  Park. 

Thomson  pointed  out  that  the  rapid  extension  in  the 
size  of  towns,  while  increasing  the  happiness  of  the  rich,  who 
escape  to  the  outskirts,  had  entailed  on  the  inhabitants 
new  discomforts,  of  which  the  chief  were  smoky  air  and 
increased  distance  of  their  residences  from  the  country. 
The  establishment  of  public  parks  was  a  just  claim  on 
those  who  had  been  made  rich  by  manufactures  of  towns. 
He  advocated  the  laying  of  a  tax  on  owners  of  vacant  land 
near  a  town,  as  soon  as  it  was  first  built  on,  the  object  of 
the  tax  being  to  supply  funds  for  the  establishment  of 
permanent  open  spaces,  as  a  compensation    for    the    evil 


PARKS  IN  TOWNS  AND  MUNICIPAL  FORESTS  35 

inflicted  on  towns  by  buildings  erected  on  their  outskirts. 
Inasmuch  as  proprietors  obtained  accession  of  value  as  the 
town  spreads,  through  no  exertion  of  their  own,  such  a  tax 
would  be  equitable.  Thomson,  however,  being  a  practical 
man,  did  not  desire  people  to  stand  idly  by  till  such  a  tax 
was  imposed,  but  to  proceed  by  private  subscriptions  to 
acquire  land  for  public  parks,  aided  by  public  grants. 

The  creation  and  development  of  the  numerous  public 
parks  and  open  spaces  in  Birmingham  illustrate  well  tlie 
enlightened  progress  of  a  great  municipality,  since  1852, 
"  when  there  were  no  public  walks  in  Birmingham."  It  will 
be  seen  how  voluntary  effort  stimulated  and  brought  into 
being  the  necessary  municipal  enterprise.  The  story  of  the 
Birmingham  public  parks  is  doubtless  typical,  and  will 
stand  for  the  history  of  this  movement  all  over  Great 
Britain. 

It  was  not  until  1851  that  an  Improvement  Act  gave 
the  Corporation  powers  to  acquire  land  for  purposes  of 
health  and  recreation.  Adderley  Park,  the  first  public 
park  of  Birmingham,  was  laid  out  in  1856  on  a  plot  of 
building  land  of  about  10  acres,  which  was  a  gift  for  this 
purpose  to  the  Corporation  by  Mr.  Adderley.  Calthorpe 
Park,  31  acres  in  area,  was  opened  in  1857;  but  the  fee 
simple  on  the  ground  was  not  conveyed  to  the  Corporation 
until  1894.  Aston  Park,  now  49  acres  in  extent,  first 
opened  as  a  recreation  ground  by  a  private  company  in 
1858,  was  purchased  for  £26,000  in  1864,  the  Corporation 
contributing  to  the  price  £19,000,  and  seventeen  citizens 
the  balance  of  £7000.  Miss  Ryland  presented  the  city 
with  Cannon  Hill  Park  in  1873.  It  was  then  pasture 
land  with  fine  old  trees,  and  has  since  been  abundantly 
planted  with  shrubs  and  trees,  and  enriched  by  an  arboretum 
and  beautiful  gardens,  one  of  which  (Fig.  4)  is  set  apart 
for  the  use  of  botanical  students.  The  area,  at  first  57 
acres,  has  been  increased  gradually  to  73  acres.  Highgate 
Park,  8  acres  of  waste  land,  was  purchased  by  the  Corporation 
for  £8000  and  opened  in  1881.  Summerfield  Park,  a 
well-wooded  demesne,  originally  12  acres  in  area,  was  also 


36  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

obtained  by  purchase.  Opened  in  1876,  it  has  been 
extended  to  34  acres,  the  total  cost  amounting  to  £26,330. 
Miss  Ryland  presented  as  a  second  gift  to  the  Corpora- 
tion 43  acres  of  partly  wooded  land  at  Small  Heath,  and 
£4000  to  lay  it  out  as  a  park,  which  was  opened  as 
Small  Heath  Park  in  1879,  and  renamed  Victoria  Park 
in  1887. 

The  most  important  event  in  the  history  of  the  parks 
of  Birmingham  was  the  securing  for  public  use  of  the 
Lecky  Hills,  the  only  range  within  easy  access  of  the  city. 
A  few  building  plots  had  been  sold  on  one  of  these 
hills,  Rednall  Hill.  Mr.  Grosvenor  Lee,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Birmingham  Association  for  the  Preservation  of 
Open  Spaces,  in  1887,  with  the  help  of  several  prominent 
citizens,  purchased  the  rest  of  the  hill,  32  acres,  which  was 
conveyed  to  the  Corporation  in  1889,  as  a  place  of  public 
recreation  for  ever.  The  other  two  hills,  Beacon  Hill, 
33  acres,  and  Bilberry  Hill,  49  acres,  were  afterwards 
secured.  Beacon  Hill  rises  to  1000  feet  elevation  and 
commands  a  view  of  ten  counties.  The  acquisition  of  this 
hilly  tract,  covered  with  pine  and  larch  and  heather,  was 
a  great  achievement.  The  learned  American  blacksmith, 
Elihu  Burritt,  gives  this  description  :  "  Any  summer  day  in 
the  year  when  the  sun  shines  on  them,  these  hills  are  set 
to  the  music  of  merry  voices  of  boys  and  girls  and  older 
children  who  feel  young  on  the  purple  heather  at  fifty." 

Of  the  parks  in  the  added  areas,  not  formerly  included 
in  the  district  under  the  control  of  the  Birmingham 
Corporation,  there  may  be  mentioned  Handsworth  Park, 
6  3  acres,  at  Handsworth ;  Queen's  Park,  1 4  acres,  at 
Harborne ;  and  Sparhill  Park,  1 9  acres,  at  Yardley,  mostly 
acquired  by  purchase.  In  the  well  -  wooded  district  of 
Warley,  Lightwoods  Park  and  its  extension,  some  30  acres, 
were  the  gift  of  several  citizens  from  1903  to  1915. 
Warley  Park,  a  fine  natural  woodland  of  109  acres,  was 
partly  acquired  by  gift  and  partly  by  purchase,  the  cost  to 
the  Corporation  being  £50,472.  Perry  Park  and  Reservoir, 
about    100    acres,  of  which    88    acres   was  purchased  fur 


PARKS  IN  TOWNS  AND  MUNICIPAL  FORESTS  37 

£7095,  the  rest  being  rented  from  the  Water  Department, 
constitutes  an  attractive  park. 

There  are  25  parks  under  the  control  of  the  Corporation, 
with  a  total  area  of  876  acres.  Besides  the  parks  there 
are  36  recreation  grounds,  532  acres  in  extent,  and  19 
open  spaces  with  an  area  of  16  acres.  Mr.  W.  H.  Morter, 
the  Superintendent  of  Parks,  tells  me  that  to  each  acre 
of  land  in  the  parks  and  open  spaces  of  Birmingham  there 
are  625  inhabitants. 

In  these  parks  and  open  spaces  many  innovations  have 
been  made.  Concerts  of  good  music  and  band  playing  are 
given;  and  in  1915  dancing  in  the  open  air  was  introduced 
with  great  success.  Provision  for  organised  games,  whereby 
the  children  are  taught  how  to  play,  was  begun  in  1912  at 
a  cost  of  £250  to  the  Parks  Committee,  which  was  increased 
to  £564  in  1914.  The  games  are  commenced  on  1st  May 
and  last  till  the  end  of  September  in  each  year.  In  this 
movement,  which  has  spread  in  the  United  States  (2)  with 
the  most  wonderful  effects,  Birmingham  has  been  the 
pioneer  in  England.  The  poorer  children  in  the  slums,  who 
knew  nothing  of  the  common  games  played  by  children  in 
country  districts,  are  now  taught  various  games  in  most  of 
the  parks  and  recreation  grounds.  This  service  is  rendered 
by  elementary  teachers  carefully  chosen  for  their  personality 
and  their  enthusiasm  for  games.  Mr.  Norman  Chamberlain 
reports  a  marked  effect  of  these  games  in  improving  sports- 
manship, manners,  and  cleanliness.  Parents  and  friends 
attend  in  large  numbers ;  and  the  children  are  drawn  from 
the  streets  to  the  parks,  with  consequent  improvement  in 
their  physical  well-being.  The  play  in  the  parks  can  be 
indulged  in  with  greater  freedom  and  less  liability  to 
accidents  than  that  in  the  streets  and  waste  grounds  ;  and  is 
carried  on  in  more  cheerful  and  health-giving  surroundings. 

The  general  policy  of  the  Birmingham  Parks  Committee 
is  worthy  of  imitation  by  similar  bodies,  and  is  summed  up 
as  follows  by  Mr.  Norman  Chamberlain : 

1.  To  save  on  administration  and  decorative  effects  and 
to  spend  on  new  sites. 


38  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

2.  To  use  method  and  foresight  rather  than  to  wait  for 

public  agitation  at  the  last  moment. 

3.  To  secure  the  fullest  use  of  the  parks  by  catering  to 

all  tastes. 

4.  To  trust  the  public  as  much  as  possible  in  the  enjoy- 

ment of  what  is  after  all  their  own  property. 

To  these  counsels  may  be  added  others  suggested  by 
Mr.  Basil  Holmes,  the  Secretary  of  the  Metropolitan  Public 
Gardens  Association  (3).  The  most  important  is,  in  every 
city  and  town,  to  get  voluntary  Open  Spaces  Associations 
to  work,  who  will  exert  continuous  pressure  on  the 
Corporations  in  regard  to  the  laying  out  of  parks  and  open 
spaces.  Such  voluntary  agencies  can  plan  skilfully  for  the 
future,  and  see  that  land  is  acquired  before  it  is  built  over. 
Corporations  will  often  maintain  what  is  handed  over  to 
them  by  the  gifts  or  forethought  of  such  associations  or 
individual  citizens. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  Town  Planning  Act  is  that 
an  area,  developed  under  a  plan,  will  have  parks  and  open 
spaces  greater  in  amount  and  more  evenly  distributed  than 
the  haphazard  systems  of  the  past.  Three  zones  should  be 
clearly  recognised  in  a  town,  in  order  to  plan  skilfully  for 
its  needs  of  parks  and  open  spaces,  namely,  a  central 
district,  the  more  modern  parts  adjoining,  and  the  suburbs. 

Encroachments  on  public  lands,  burial  grounds,  and  the 
like  should  be  checked  by  the  watchful  care  of  the  voluntary 
associations,  and  suitable  parks  should  be  suggested  for 
acquisition  by  gift  or  purchase.  Several  large  towns  are 
still  in  need  of  parks  and  recreation  grounds,  and  voluntary 
associations  should  be  started  in  such  places.  Any  house 
in  a  park  acquired  should  be  utilised  for  some  public 
purpose,  as  library,  museum,  shelter,  refreshment  room,  etc., 
and  not  be  afterwards  allocated  for  some  special  class  of 
people,  involving  a  portion  of  the  open  space  being  cut  off 
to  form  a  separate  garden  for  the  house.  The  whole  of 
Golders  Hill  was  secured  for  the  public  by  private  and 
public  subscriptions ;  and  it  was  with  great  difficulty  after- 
wards that  the  London  County  Council  was  prevented  from 


PAEKS  IN  TOWNS  AND  MUNICIPAL  FOEESTS  39 

using  the  house  and  a  large  strip  of  adjoining  ground  as  a 
permanent  convalescent  home.  The  free  use  of  common 
lands  is  occasionally  interfered  with  by  letting  portions  for 
golf  and  other  games.  Much  good  work  has  been  done  by 
the  Commons  and  Footpaths  Preservation  Society,  which 
was  founded,  as  a  result  of  the  report  of  the  Committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  appointed  in  1864,  to  inquire  into 
the  best  means  of  preserving  the  forests,  commons,  and  open 
spaces  in  and  near  London  for  public  use.  Wimbledon 
Common,  Hampstead  Heath,  Epping  Forest,  etc.,  which  were 
in  danger  of  being  enclosed,  have  been  kept  for  the  people. 

The  Metropolitan  I'ublic  Gardens  Association,  which  was 
founded  in  1883  by  the  Earl  of  Meath,  has  done  much 
useful  work  in  continuously  drawing  attention  to  the 
necessity  of  providing  town  dwellers  with  parks,  gardens, 
and  recreation  grounds  within  easy  reach  of  their  homes. 
The  Association  has  laid  out  numerous  disused  churchyards 
and  burial  grounds,  enclosed  squares,  and  waste  places. 
These,  according  to  circumstances,  are  either  laid  out  as 
gardens,  or  as  gardens  and  playgrounds  combined,  or  as 
playgrounds  pure  and  simple.  The  extent  of  this  work  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  from  1884  to  1912  the  Associa- 
tion spent  £44,248  in  laying  out  115  open  spaces,  and 
contributed  £9679  to  the  acquisition  or  formation  of 
47  gardens,  playing  tields,  etc.  Before  laying  out  each 
ground,  the  Association  arranges  for  its  permanent  main- 
tenance by  securing  its  transfer  to  the  London  County 
Council  or  local  authority,  under  the  Open  Spaces  Acts,  or 
by  obtaining  special  giants  from  public  bodies  or  private 
individuals.  The  Association  plants  trees  in  suitable 
thoroughfares,  and  gives  advice  in  pruning  which  is  greatly 
needed,  owing  to  the  way  in  which  trees  are  often  maltreated 
by  unskilful  pruning  and  lopping.  It  has  promoted  further 
legislation  for  giving  public  bodies  all  over  the  country 
increased  powers  for  purchasing  land  for  public  recreation, 
as  the  Open  Spaces  Acts  of  1887,  1890,  and  1906,  etc. 

Onje  of  the  questions  (4)  to  be  considered  in  town 
planning  is  what  proportion  of  the  area  of  a  city  should  be 


40  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

set  apart  for  its  lungs  and  for  recreation  grounds.  Good 
water  supply  and  sewage,  fewer  people  per  house,  and  good 
ventilation  have  undoubtedly  kept  down  the  death-rate  of 
large  towns ;  but  tliere  is  no  means  of  determining  exactly 
how  much  of  this  improvement  may  be  due  to  the  extension 
of  parks  and  open  spaces.  The  influence  of  parks,  especially 
if  the  trees  form  real  woodlands,  and  give  children  and 
tired  workers  pure  air,  must  be  considerable.  The  amount 
to  be  apportioned  in  a  city,  and  how  much  of  each  park 
should  be  under  trees,  is  as  yet  undecided  (5).  Mr.  Holmes 
has  secured  returns  from  the  fifty  chief  towns  in  the 
kingdom,  showing  that  in  1883  they  possessed  in  the 
aggregate  one  acre  of  parks  and  open  spaces  to  760  people ; 
whereas  20  years  later,  in  1903,  notwithstanding  an 
increase  in  population  of  50  per  cent,  there  was  one  acre 
of  parks  and  recreation  grounds  to  635  people.  In  the 
County  of  London  (6)  there  was  in  1883  one  acre  of  open 
space  to  950  persons,  whereas  in  1910  there  was  one  acre 
to  750  people.  Birmingham  in  1917  had  one  acre  of 
parks  and  open  spaces  to  625  inhabitants. 

Mr.  Holmes  condemns  the  ordinary  school  playground 
with  its  hard  surface  and  high  walls  as  being  like  a  prison 
yard,  and  no  wonder  the  children  prefer  the  streets.  He 
agrees  with  me  that  the  best  form  of  playground  is  a  grove 
of  trees,  with  a  bare  sandy  surface  beneath.  The  natural 
feature  of  the  larger  parks  and  commons  should  be  carefully 
preserved ;  the  less  elaborate  the  treatment  the  better,  as 
the  public  love  areas  over  which  they  can  wander  at  will, 
and  are  too  often  hindered  in  their  games  and  exercise  by 
enclosures,  railings,  and  notices. 

The  National  Trust  for  Places  of  Historic  Interest  and 
Natural  Beauty  has  done  admirable  work  since  1895  in 
acquiring  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  public  many  properties 
of  interest.  Some  of  these  are  woodland  and  of  value  in 
the  wide  sense  to  public  health.  The  most  interesting  is 
perhaps  Box  Hill,  234  acres  in  extent,  which  was  presented 
to  the  National  Trust  by  Mr.  Leopold  Salomons  in  1914. 
Others  are  Ide  Hill,  near  Sevenoaks,  21  acres,  purchased  in 


X       - 


PAEKS  IN  TOWNS  AND  MUNICIPAL  FORESTS  41 

1899  and  1914;  Manesty  Wood,  Derwentwater,  105  acres, 
purchased  in  1902  and  1913  ;  Leigh  Woods,  Bristol,  about 
80  acres,  presented  to  the  National  Trust  by  Mr.  George 
Wills  ;  Hydon  Heath,  a  tract  of  beautifully  wooded  land 
about  92  acres  in  extent,  near  Godalming,  purchased  in 
1915  and  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  the  late  Miss 
Octavia  Hill. 

Glasgow,  renowned  for  its  municipal  enterprise,  is  the 
first  city  to  acquire  a  forest  area  for  the  recreation  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  estate  of  Ardgoil  (Fig.  5),  14,740  acres, 
in  the  Highlands  of  Argyllshire,  about  40  miles  distant 
from  the  city,  was  presented  to  the  Glasgow  Corporation  in 
1906  by  Mr.  A.  Cameron  Corbett,  now  Lord  Eowallan.  It 
is  situated  between  Loch  Goil  and  Loch  Long,  and  rises  on 
Ben  Donich  to  2774  feet  and  on  Ben  Ime  to  3318  feet 
elevation.  A  great  deal  of  the  land  is  over  1000  feet 
elevation,  and  none  of  this  can  be  afforested.  There  are 
approximately  about  4000  acres  under  700  feet  elevation, 
which  could  possibly  be  planted  with  trees.  Some  of  this 
is  covered  with  coppice  and  natural  woods  of  oak  and  hazel, 
intermixed  with  ash,  alder,  and  birch.  It  is  proposed 
gradually  to  improve  these  areas  by  cutting  away  the 
existing  poor  woods  in  groups  of  one  to  five  acres,  then 
planting  with  fast  growing  ana  remunerative  conifers  like 
European  and  Japanese  larch,  common  and  Sitka  spruce, 
Douglas  fir,  Scots  pine,  etc.  (7).  A  nursery  has  been 
established,  and  by  October  1918  about  500  acres  had 
been  planted  with  1,000,000  trees.  The  species  mainly 
used  were  larch,  Scots  pine,  and  Douglas  fir,  and  the 
plantations  are  now  very  flourishing.  In  the  nursery  there 
are  about  1,000,000  young  trees  which  will  be  put  out 
during  the  next  four  years  (8). 

By  the  deed  of  gift,  due  consideration  must  be  given  to 
the  amenities  of  the  Ardgoil  Estate  in  any  scheme  of 
planting,  as  the  greater  part  is  free  to  public  access. 
Mr.  Whitton's  plan  of  afforestation  fulfils  this  condition  and 
increases  the  amenities  of  the  estate.  In  addition,  the  plan 
does  something  to  help  our  National  Timber  Reserve,  which 


42  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

is  going  to  be  created  for  supplies  of  timber  in  the  distant 
future.  In  this  region,  moreover,  certain  timber  trees  grow 
fast,  and  surprising  financial  results  have  been  obtained  a 
few  miles  off  at  Gairletter,  on  Loch  Long.  In  1912  a 
plantation  here  of  Douglas  fir  and  Thuya,  35  years  old,  was 
blown  down  (9).  The  timber  amounted  in  volume  to 
7430  cubic  feet  per  acre,  and  was  sold  in  the  very 
accessible  market  of  Glasgow  for  £130  per  acre. 

NOTES 

1.  Collected  Papers  by  James  Thomson,  464-472  (1912). 

2.  The  organised  Playground  Movement  in  the  United  States  is  about  30 
years  old.  In  1912,  332  cities  were  conducting  organised  play  under  (jualified 
play  leaders,  and  257  cities  and  towns  were  spending  $3,500,000  a  year  on 
the  maintenance  of  playgrounds.  In  all  those  cities,  places  are  set  apart 
where  children  can  play  under  supervision,  not  mere  school  yards.  The  play 
leaders  are  as  a  rule  better  paid  than  the  school  teachers,  and  constitute  a 
new  and  independent  profession.  At  Chicago  a  Training  School  for  play- 
ground workers,  at  which  17  subjects  are  taught,  was  opened  in  1911.  A 
Professor  of  Play  was  appointed  at  Pittsburgh  University  in  1910.  The 
effects  of  the  movement  on  the  moral  and  physical  health  of  the  population 
are  manifold  and  far-reaching.  Tuberculosis  is  prevented  by  the  pulling 
down  of  tenement  houses  for  the  erection  of  children's  playgrounds  in  the 
congested  areas.  The  effect  of  the  organised  play  in  increasing  school 
discipline  and  efficiency  is  well  marked.  There  is  a  notable  decrease  in 
school  truancy  and  juvenile  delinquency.  The  school  curriculum  has  become 
widened  and  carried  a  little  into  the  open  air.  Children's  gardens  and 
libraries  founded  by  the  playground  associations  have  become  school  gardens 
and  libraries.  See  Iioard  of  Education,  Educational  Pamphlet,  No.  27  (1913): 
"The  Playground  Movement  in  America  and  its  Relation  to  Public 
Education "  ;  and  City  of  Birmingham  Parks  Department,  Re2)orts  on 
Organised  Games,  1912,  1913,  and  1914. 

3.  I  quote  liere  largely  from  papers  furnished  by  the  Metropolitan 
Public  Gardens  Association,  including  their  Annual  Reports,  an  article  in 
Joiirn.  Sanitarij  List.  xxiv.  604  (1903),  and  a  paper  read  at  Bradford  in 
1903.  The  history  of  the  movement  is  described  fully  by  Mr.  Basil 
Holmes  in  a  paper  entitled  "Open  Spaces,  Gardens,  and  Recreation 
Grounds,"  read  before  the  Town  Planning  Conference,  convened  in  London 
by  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects  in  October  1910. 

4.  See  Bazalgette,  in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  76,  p.  2  (1884). 

5.  Though  parks  and  gardens  are  a  primary  necessity  for  large  towns, 
yet  their  good  inHuence  is  felt  in  small  towns  as  well.  See  G.  T.  Hunt, 
Borough  Surveyor  of  Dorchester,  "  On  the  Provision  and  Laying  out  of 
Pleasure  Grounds  in  Small  Towns,"  in  Jonrn.  Sanitary  Inst.  xxi.  p.  113 
(1900). 

6.  Sir  Gilbert  Parker  stated  in  1910  that  there  is  oidy  one  acre  of  open 
space  to  15,000  people  in  Shoreditch,  and  one  acre  to  14,000  people  in 
Southwark. 


PAEKS  IN  TOWNS  AND  MUNICIPAL  FORESTS  43 

7.  See  Jlr.  James  Whitton's  Reports  on  the  Ardgoil  Estate  to  the  Glasgoio 
Corpm-ation,  dated  14th  Oct.  1907,  24th  Oct.  1912,  and  15th  Jan.  1913  ; 
and  Address  to  the  Rotary  Club,  Glasgow,  on  31st  Oct.  1916. 

8.  See  Timber  Trades  Journal,  28th  September  1918,  p.  395. 

9.  See  Trans.  Roij.  Scot.  Arbor.  S'oc.  xxviii.  jip.  107  and  176  (1914). 


CHAPTER    V 

TREES    IN    TOWNS 

In  foreign  countries  with  a  warmer  climate  than  ours,  like 
France,  Italy,  and  the  United  States,  trees  are  almost  a 
necessity  in  the  wider  streets  of  towns  on  account  of  the 
shade  which  they  provide  in  summer.  They  do  away  with 
the  hot  and  dazzling  pavements,  which  are  not  merely 
unpleasant  but  are  highly  dangerous  to  health.  The  New 
York  Medical  Society  placed  on  record  (1)  their  opinion 
"  that  one  of  the  most  effective  means  for  mitigating  the 
intense  heat  of  the  summer  months  and  diminishing  the 
death-rate  among  children  is  the  cultivation  of  an  adequate 
number  of  trees  in  the  streets." 

In  the  streets  of  our  own  towns  the  need  to  plant  trees 
as  a  protection  from  injurious  heat  is  not  so  imperative, 
and  the  arguments  for  the  practice  are  mainly  aesthetic. 
Trees  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  a  city.  They  soften  the 
harshness  of  a  row  of  bare  houses.  They  have  a  restful 
effect,  yet  are  intensely  interesting  in  their  variety,  as  they 
change  from  day  to  day  and  from  season  to  season.  In  the 
winter  we  see  their  beautiful  outlines  formed  by  the  tracery  ~ 
of  their  twigs,  and  admire  their  bark.  In  the  summer 
they  are  varied  in  their  foliage,  which  changes  its  tints 
often  to  magic  colours  in  autumn.  Trees  are  on  the  whole 
more  suited  for  suburbs  than  for  the  central  or  business 
quarters  of  a  town.  They  add  greatly  to  the  happiness  of 
the  inhabitants  of  mean  streets.  They  have  in  this  way  a 
hygienic  effect. 

44 


TEEES  IN  TOWNS  45 

Trees  should  never  be  planted  in  narrow  streets,  and 
can  only  safely  be  planted  when  the  footpaths  also  are  not 
narrow.  It  is  objected  to  trees  that  they  render  the 
thoroughfare  moist ;  but  such  moisture  as  they  occasionally 
cause  does  no  harm  to  the  surface  of  the  roads,  and  on  the 
contrary  keeps  them  in  better  condition  than  dry  dust 
would  do.  Some  people  do  not  like  the  fallen  leaves  of 
trees,  but  the  trouble  of  removal  is  very  slight. 

That  towns  are  unhealthy  to  vegetation  and  especially 
to  trees  is  well  known  ;  and  this  subject  is  relevant,  as 
illustrating  the  strange  fact  when  one  thinks  of  it,  that 
towns  owing  to  various  causes  are  unhealthy,  just  in  the 
same  way  to  human  beings  as  they  are  to  trees.  First, 
there  is  the  smoke  of  towns,  which  is  a  wicked  waste  of 
coal  and  entirely  preventable.  Evergreen  trees  in  London 
are  quickly  coated  over  in  winter  with  a  dark  shining 
carbonaceous  product  (2),  soot,  and  need  washing  in  the 
Botanic  Garden  of  Regent's  Park.  The  smoke  of  towns  (3) 
causes  the  pores  of  the  leaves  to  be  blocked,  thus  checking 
transpiration.  Every  dirty  plant  is  practically  living  in 
twilight,  as  the  soot  reduces  the  assimilation  of  carbon 
dioxide  by  the  leaves,  depriving  them  of  their  most 
important  source  of  food.  Last  of  all,  the  sulphur  contained 
in  ordinary  coal  when  burned  is  changed  into  sulphur 
dioxide,  which  ultimately  forms  sulphuric  acid,  a  deadly 
corrosive  poison  to  the  leaves  (4). 

The  soil  under  streets  in  towns  is  unfertile,  and  is  often 
very  poor,  being  composed  of  building  debris,  etc. ;  but  its 
main  defect  is  its  dryness,  as  owing  to  the  modern 
pavement  all  the  water,  which  falls  as  rain,  runs  off  into 
the  sewers,  finding  its  way  into  the  sea,  and  never  reaches 
the  soil,  where  the  roots  of  the  trees  are.  Drought  is  the 
greatest  enemy  of  trees,  as  the  latter,  owing  to  their 
extensive  surface  of  foliage,  require  enormous  quantities  of 
water.  The  only  trees  that  thrive  in  streets  in  towns  are 
those  able  to  resist  drought. 

The  soil,  according  to  Wieler,  being  made  acid  by  the 
action    of  the    sulphur   compounds    in    the   soot,   loses   its 


46  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

bacterial  activity,  and  becomes  unfertile.  The  addition  of 
new  soil  is  often  favourable,  as  it  inoculates  the  old  soil. 
Chemical  works  in  towns,  which  pour  into  the  atmosphere 
fumes  of  hydrochloric,  nitric,  and  sulphuric  acids,  are  fatal 
to  all  trees  within  a  certain  radius.  The  new  methods  of 
oiling  and  tarring  roads  are  probably  injurious  to  trees ; 
but  this  fact  is  not  yet  quite  established  (5).  Trees  are 
also  killed  in  towns  by  the  escape  of  ordinary  lighting  gas, 
if  their  roots  are  exposed  to  the  leak  for  some  time.  Trees 
are  also  injured  by  the  escape  of  electric  currents.  All 
these  make  a  long  list  of  evil  conditions  to  which  trees  are 
subject  in  cities ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  fine  trees 
in  the  centre  of  modern  towns  are  decaying  rapidly  and 
disappearing.  I  still  think  that  the  great  enemy  is  drought, 
want  of  water  in  the  soil.  To  all  these  evils  must  be 
added  the  injury  often  done  to  trees  when  the  level  of  a 
street  is  altered,  when  pipes  are  laid  or  changed,  etc.  In 
fact  trees  in  towns  are  in  constant  danger  from  ignorant 
workmen. 

In  the  central  or  business  quarter  of  a  city  or  town, 
where  the  ground  is  covered  with  buildings  and  pavements 
involving  the  worst  conditions  of  soil,  the  species  that  have 
proved  successful  in  the  streets  are  very  few  in  number. 
Thus,  the  list  of  desirable  street  trees  in  Paris  comprises 
only  eleven  species,  and  in  Washington  twelve  species. 
In  England  the  choice  is  even  more  restricted.  Prof.  Farmer 
could  recommend  to  the  Kensington  Town  Council  only 
four  trees,  namely,  plane,  Ailanthus,  Jersey  elm,  and 
Lombardy  poplar,  though  he  suggested  the  trial  of  four 
others,  namely,  common  lime,  single-leaf  ash,  red-flowering 
horse-chestnut,  and  Bolle's  poplar. 

In  the  residential  area  or  suburbs,  where  gardens  or  small 
plots  often  intervene  between  the  houses  and  the  pavement, 
the  roots  of  the  street  trees  find  copious  supplies  of  air  and 
water  at  no  great  distance.  The  soil  conditions  are  much 
more  favourable  than  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  the  list 
of  species  that  can  be  successfully  planted  is  considerably 
augmented.     In  parks  and  open  spaces,  where  the  soil  is  in 


TKEES  IN  TOWNS  47 

a  natural  state,  numerous  species  may  be  grown,  if  the 
smoke  nuisance  is  slight. 

As  regards  planting  in  towns  generally,  the  choice  of 
trees  should  be  restricted  to  really  hardy  species,  which  can 
live  and  thrive  in  the  climate  of  the  district,  and  which 
are  capable  of  withstanding  wind,  if  the  situation  is  at  all 
exposed.  Species  not  liable  to  attacks  of  fungi  and  insects 
are  also  very  desirable.  The  difference  in  the  climatic 
requirements  of  trees  is  much  greater  than  is  generally 
supposed.  For  example,  some  American  trees,  like  the 
black  walnut  and  the  tulip  tree,  which  make  noble  specimens 
in  the  Thames  valley  and  farther  south,  are  often  poor  and 
stunted  in  the  north  of  England  and  Scotland.  The 
Chinese  Paulownia  i'ntperialis,  which  is  magnificent  in  Paris, 
is  unlikely  ever  to  succeed  in  any  of  our  towns.  New  and 
rare  trees,  which  may  be  seen  flourishing  at  Kew,  Glasnevin, 
and  other  botanic  gardens,  ought  to  be  tried  in  town  parks 
and  spaces  blessed  with  good  soil,  and  not  in  streets,  where 
all  the  conditions  are  unfavourable. 

Different  species  of  trees  vary  much  in  the  quantity  and 
density  of  their  foliage,  and  this  affects  their  suitability  for 
planting  in  streets.  Some  kinds,  as  the  beech,  carry  a 
dense  heavy  crown  of  leaves,  under  whose  shade  nothing 
can  grow.  Trees  of  this  class  are  not  desirable  in  streets, 
as  they  keep  the  roads  and  pavements  wet  for  long  periods 
after  rain,  and  prevent  sunshine  from  reaching  the  houses 
in  narrow  streets.  Other  sorts  of  trees,  of  which  birch  and 
Eobinia  are  good  examples,  bear  light  and  sparse  foliage, 
which  casts  little  shade.  Such  trees  are  suitable  for  street 
planting. 

The  size  to  which  trees  will  grow  in  time  is  a  matter  of 
importance,  as  it  is  only  in  great  wide  streets  that  trees 
of  the  first  magnitude  can  be  safely  planted.  The  form  of 
trees  must  also  be  considered.  In  confined  sites  and  narrow 
streets,  trees  of  a  columnar  or  narrow  pyramidal  habit  are 
the  most  suitable. 

A  few  remarks  on  the  species  most  suitable  for  towns 
will  be  useful. 


48  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

The  London  plane  (Platanus  acerifolia)  is  the  tree  which 
succeeds  best  in  streets,  not  only  in  England,  but  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  This  re- 
markable tree  is  unknown  in  the  wild  state,  and  is  un- 
doubtedly a  hybrid,  which  appears  to  have  originated  in 
this  country  about  260  years  ago.  The  parents  were  the 
oriental  plane  {Platanus  orientalis),  native  of  the  Levant, 
and  the  occidental  plane  {Platanus  occidentalis),  common  in 
the  forests  of  eastern  North  America.  To  its  hybrid  origin 
may  be  ascribed  the  extraordinary  vigour  of  this  tree,  which 
enables  it  to  remain  healthy  under  the  most  unfavourable 
conditions  of  soil  and  atmosphere  in  towns.  It  is  invariably 
propagated  by  nurserymen  from  cuttings.  When  raised 
from  seed  it  produces  a  varied  progeny,  none  of  the  seedlings 
reproducing  exactly  the  parent,  some  approximating  in 
foliage  to  Platanus  orientalis  and  others  to  Platanus  occi- 
dentalis, an  evident  proof  of  its  hybrid  origin. 

The  original  type  is  represented  by  many  fine  old  trees 
in  the  London  squares,  and  has  been  much  planted  in  the 
streets  of  the  metropolis.  It  is  a  wide-spreading  tree,  with 
horizontal  and  pendulous  branches,  and  attains  in  good  soil 
an  enormous  size,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  wonderful  specimen 
at  the  Ranelagh  Club,  Barnes.  Two  other  forms  are  known, 
both  of  which  are  probably  seedlings.  One  named  var. 
2ri/ramidalis  is  said  to  have  come  from  Holland  about  thirty 
years  ago,  and  is  readily  distinguishable  by  its  narrower  and 
stiffer  habit,  with  ascending  branches  and  dense  foliage,  the 
leaves  being  less  deeply  cut  than  those  of  the  typical  form. 
The  pyramidal  variety  is  now  much  planted  in  towns 
throughout  the  British  Isles,  and  is  scarcely  less  vigorous 
than  the  original  form.  The  other  form,  Platanus  acerifolia, 
var.  Mspanica,  is  now  very  rare  in  cultivation,  and,  so  far  as 
I  know,  has  never  been  planted  in  English  towns.  It  form^ 
at  Kew  a  tall  straight  stem,  with  branches  not  so  pendulous 
as  those  of  the  type,  and  bearing  remarkably  large  leaves, 
very  distinct  in  outline.  This  beautiful  tree,  on  account  of 
its  graceful  habit  and  magnificent  foliage,  is  well  worth 
propagating,  and  should  be  tried  in  parks  and  streets.     All 


TEEES  IN  TOWNS  49 

the  specimens  which  I  have  seen  appear  to  have  come  from 
Van  Houtte's  nursery  in  Belgium,  where  they  were  grown 
under  the  name  Platanus  orientalis,  var.  californica. 

Birch  is  a  most  useful  tree  in  towns,  and  the  silver  birch 
{Bctula  verrucosa),  which  resists  drought  much  better  than 
the  common  species  {Betula  puhcscens),  should  always  be 
chosen.  It  also  succeeds  well  where  there  is  much  lime  in 
the  soil  and  is  very  beautiful  both  in  summer  and  winter, 
with  its  pendulous  branches  and  very  white  bark. 

Poplars  thrive  in  towns  and  succeed  in  heavy  clay  soils 
where  other  trees  fail.  The  European  black  poplar,  Populus 
nigra,  may  be  tried  in  streets,  but  its  foliage  and  form  are 
unattractive,  and  its  trunk  develops  ugly  burrs  when  old. 
The  Lorabardy  poplar,  a  male  tree  always  propagated  by  cut- 
tings, which  originated  as  a  sport  in  Northern  Italy  about 
200  years  ago,  has  been  styled  the  'Exclamation  Point'  in 
landscape  architecture,  and  it  can  often  be  used  effectually 
in  towns.  The  hybrid  black  poplars,  which  have  been  pro- 
duced accidentally  by  the  crossing  of  the  European  and 
American  species,  include  several  kinds,  of  which  the  black 
Italian  poplar  {Popidus  serotina),  a  male  tree,  and  the 
Eucalyptus  poplar  {Popnhis  regenerata),  a  female  tree,  are 
the  commonest  in  cultivation  in  England.  They  grow 
speedily  to  an  immense  size,  and  on  that  account  are  un- 
suitable for  ordinary  street  planting.  In  town  parks  they 
should  be  avoided,  as  they  do  not  harmonise  with  other 
trees,  which  they  speedily  overtop;  while  in  windswept 
districts  they  are  likely  to  be  smashed  by  gales.  If,  how- 
ever, a  quick  effect  is  desired,  the  best  of  these  hybrids  is 
Populus  rohusta,  a  narrow  tree  with  branches  ascending  at 
an  angle  and  not  directed  vertically  upwards  as  in  the 
Lombardy  poplar.  This  is  well  suited  for  making  an  avenue 
or  line  of  trees  in  a  park,  that  would  attain  a  great  height 
in  a  few  years,  its  average  rate  of  growth  being  about  three 
feet  annually.  The  white  poplar  {Populus  alba)  and  the 
grey  poplar  (Populus  canescens)  have  beautiful  foliage,  and 
are  much  more  desirable  for  street  planting  than  the  black 
poplar.      Bolle's   poplar  (Populus  alba,   var.   Bolleana),   the 


50  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

fastigiate  form  of  the  white  poplar,  resembling  the  Lombardy 
poplar  in  shape,  but  distinctly  wider  with  less  upright 
branches,  has  been  recommended  for  streets ;  but  I  have 
never  seen  it  used.  It  should  be  tried  as  it  is  a  beautiful 
tree  in  habit  and  shape,  and  succeeds  well  in  Kew  Gardens. 
It  would  probably  thrive  in  the  north,  as  it  comes  originally 
from  Turkestan,  where  the  winters  are  extremely  severe. 
The  balsam  poplar,  with  balsamic  odour  of  foliage  and  buds, 
occasionally  seen  in  London  streets,  is  Pojmhis  candicans, 
a  female  tree  of  unknown  origin.  It  bears  smoke  well,  but 
is  unsuitable  for  streets,  as  its  suckers  come  up  freely  through 
ordinary  pavements. 

Ailantlms  glandulosa,  a  native  of  China,  is  a  fine  tree 
with  magnificent  pinnate  foliage,  which  thrives  and  bears 
smoke  well  in  towns  in  the  south  of  England.  It  does  not 
succeed,  however,  in  Scotland  or  Ireland,  where  there  is 
not  enough  heat  in  summer  for  the  well-being  of  this 
species. 

Bohinia  Pseiidacacia,  an  American  tree,  commonly  but 
erroneously  called  '  Acacia,'  is  a  successful  street  tree,  very 
desirable  on  account  of  its  pure  white  flowers  and  graceful 
foliage,  the  latter  remaining  fresh  and  green  even  in  the 
driest  summer.  It  suffers,  however,  much  from  wind,  and 
in  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  the  west  of  England  and  Wales 
should  not  be  planted  except  in  warm  sheltered  situations. 
A  form  of  this  tree,  known  as  var.  JDecaisneana,  which  pro- 
duces handsome  pink  flowers,  and  appears  to  be  more 
vigorous  than  the  type,  is  well  worth  planting  as  a  street 
tree.  Var.  'pyramidalis  resembles  the  Lombardy  poplar  in 
shape,  and  is  also  suitable  for  streets. 

The  common  ash,  Fraxinus  excelsior,  thrives  fairly  well 
in  parks  in  London  and  other  cities ;  but  it  is  unsuitable 
for  planting  in  streets,  as  its  foliage  is  both  late  in  coming 
out  in  the  spring  and  early  in  falling  in  autumn.  It  takes 
up  a  great  deal  of  space,  aud  has  wide-spreading  roots,  so 
that  shrubs  and  other  trees  do  not  flourish  in  its  immediate 
vicinity ;  and  on  this  account  it  is  not  fit  for  town  gardens. 
Two  of  its  varieties,  the  weeping  asli  (var.  pcndida)  and  the 


TKEES  IN  TOWNS  51 

oue-leaved  ash  (var.  monoiJhyUa),  are  very  distinct  in  appear- 
ance, and  may  be  admitted  into  town  parks  and  gardens. 

The  ordinary  species  of  lime,  which  have  the  leaves 
green  on  the  under  surface,  namely,  the  common  lime 
{Tilia  vulgaris),  the  large-leaved  lime  (Tilia  platijphyllos), 
and  the  small-leaved  lime  (Tilia  cordata),  are  unsuitable 
for  the  centre  of  towns,  as  they  do  not  thrive  in  smoke 
or  drought.  They  are  also  objectionable  in  gardens,  on 
account  of  the  viscid  honeydew  which  is  exuded  by  their 
leaves.  The  silver  limes,  with  leaves  white  beneath  {Tilia 
alba  and  Tilia  petiolaris),  have  not  been  much  used  in 
street  planting ;  but  they  would  succeed  much  better  than 
the  common  species. 

The  horse-chestnut,  which  is  splendid  in  parks,  is  poor 
in  streets,  where  it  grows  badly,  as  a  rule,  on  account  of 
the  smoke  and  lack  of  moisture.  As  it  conies  early  into 
leaf  it  is  occasionally  cut  by  spring  frosts,  which  impair 
its  vitality.  Some  people  also  object  to  its  abundant  fall 
of  buds  and  flowers  in  the  spring  and  of  leaves  and  fruits 
in  the  autumn  ;  but  such  debris  is  readily  removed.  In 
the  streets  of  Paris  the  horse-chestnuts,  which  were  formerly 
very  fine,  appear  now  to  suffer  much  from  smoke,  which 
causes  their  leaves  often  to  turn  brown  in  summer  and 
to  fall  off  prematurely.  The  red-flowering  horse-chestnut 
(Acscuhts  carnea)  is  a  smaller  tree  of  hybrid  origin,  which 
resists  better  unfavourable  conditions  of  soil  and  atmosphere. 
Compact  in  habit,  and  bearing  attractive  flowers  freely  at 
an  early  age,  it  can  be  reconmiended  for  gardens  in  smoky 
towns.      It  succeeds  well  in  Kensington  Gardens,  London. 

Of  the  numerous  species  of  maple,  the  best  for  planting 
in  towns  is  the  Norway  maple  (Acer  'platanoidcs),  as  it  does 
not  attain  a  very  great  size,  is  compact  in  form,  is  remark- 
ably free  from  the  attacks  of  insects  or  fungi,  and  withstands 
smoke  well.  It  comes  into  l)loom  very  early  in  the  season, 
the  conspicuous  greenish-yellow  flowers  anticipating  the 
leaves,  whilst  in  autumn  the  foliage  turns  before  falling 
a  brilliant  yellow  colour.  It  is  much  more  attractive  in 
appearance  than  the  sycamore  or  great  maple  (Acei-  2>sevdo- 


52  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

platanus),  which  is  more  frequently  planted.  Both  trees 
resist  wind  well,  and  can  be  freely  used  in  seaport  towns. 
The  Norway  maple  is  a  favourite  tree  for  planting  in 
American  cities,  being  considered  superior  for  that  purpose 
to  any  of  the  native  species ;  and  it  is  strange  that  it  is  so 
seldom  seen  in  our  streets. 

Elms  are  much  planted  in  towns,  but  are  often  un- 
successful, as  the  proper  kinds  have  not  been  chosen.  The 
English  elm  {Ulmiis  campestris  of  English  authors)  is  a 
beautiful  tree  in  the  south  of  England,  retaining  its  foliage, 
which  turns  a  brilliant  yellow,  till  late  in  October,  long 
after  other  kinds  have  lost  their  leaves.  It  grows  to  a 
large  size,  and  is  unsuitable  for  streets  on  that  account ; 
moreover,  it  suffers  badly  from  smoke.  In  parks  it  must 
be  planted  with  discretion,  as  old  trees  are  liable  to  drop 
their  branches  in  calm  weather  without  warning,  and  have 
been  the  cause  of  fatal  injuries.  The  English  elm,  it  must 
be  remembered,  is  distinctly  a  southern  tree,  and  it  does 
not  thrive  well  in  Scotland  and  in  most  parts  of  Ireland. 
The  wych  elm  (Ulmus  montana)  grows  to  a  great  size,  and 
succeeds  fairly  well  in  windswept  localities.  It  is  suitable 
for  planting  in  town  parks  in  Scotland,  Northern  England, 
and  Ireland.  The  weeping  wych  elm,  of  which  there  are 
two  distinct  varieties  (6)  (var.  horizontalis  and  var.  Gamper- 
dovmensis),  is  much  planted  in  parks  and  cemeteries,  and 
thrives  in  Edinburgh  and  Dublin  as  well  as  it  does  in 
London. 

The  elms,  which  are  imported  as  seedlings  from  French 
nurseries  under  the  name  Ulmus  campestris,  are  quite 
distinct  from  tlie  English  elm,  and  are  now  correctly 
named  Ulmus  nitcns.  They  have  been  largely  planted  in 
Edinburgh  and  other  towns,  but  are  not  very  successful 
in  resisting  smoke  and  drought.  The  best  elm  for  planting 
in  streets  is  undoubtedly  the  Jersey  or  Wheatley  elm,  which 
assumes  a  regular  pyramidal  form.  The  Cornish  elm  (  Ulmus 
stricta),  less  regular  in  shape  but  similar  in  foliage  to  the 
last,  bears  wind  extremely  well,  and  should  be  tried  in 
gardens  and  streets  of  sea-coast  towns.     The  Belgian  elm 


TREES  IN  TOWNS  53 

(Ulmus  latifolia)  (7),  a  tree  of  hybrid  origin  always  pro- 
pagated by  layers,  is  magnificent  in  the  streets  of  Holland 
and  Belgium,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  successful  in 
England ;  at  least  it  is  very  rarely  seen  in  our  towns, 
though  it  has  been  imported  from  time  to  time. 

Oaks  are  seldom  planted  in  streets.  The  common  oak 
requires  good  deep  soil  for  its  proper  development,  and 
languishes  in  the  poor  soil  and  bad  air  of  towns.  In 
suburban  avenues,  the  fasligiate  or  cypress  oak  (Quercus 
peduncidata,  var.  fastigiata),  similar  in  shape  to  the  Lombardy 
poplar,  would  be  very  ornamental,  and  prove  successful, 
provided  the  soil  were  a  deep  loam  or  loamy  clay.  In 
the  milder  parts  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  the 
Turkey  oak  grows  well  on  poor  soils  and  in  dry  situations, 
and  should  be  tried  in  suburban  streets,  where  it  grows 
fast  when  there  is  not  too  much  smoke.  The  American 
red  oak  {Quercus  rubra)  attains  a  large  size  in  the  south 
of  England,  where  it  grows  faster  than  our  native  species. 
It  does  not  require  a  rich  soil,  and  on  account  of  its  hand- 
some foliage,  turning  red  in  autumn,  should  be  tried  in 
town  parks  and  wide  suburban  streets  in  the  milder  parts 
of  England  and  Ireland.  Its  ally,  the  pin  oak  {Quercus 
palustris),  has  drooping  branches  and  beautiful  leaves, 
turning  a  rich  scarlet  colour  in  autumn.  It  requires  a 
moist  soil,  and  is  unsuitable  for  use  as  a  street  tree  in 
England ;  but  it  would  probably  succeed  if  planted  near 
water  in  parks  and  gardens,  as  there  are  fine  specimens 
at  Kew  and  in  other  parts  of  the  Thames  valley. 

There  are  numerous  small  trees,  with  beautiful  flowers 
and  fruits,  which  are  fairly  successful  in  towns.  Amongst 
these  may  be  mentioned  various  species  of  Fyrus  and 
Prunus,  as  whitebeam,  rowan,  almond,  bird-cherry,  and  gean, 
all  of  which  can  be  freely  used  in  manufacturing  towns 
with  a  smoky  atmosphere.  Laburnum  and  mulberry  also 
do  well.  The  two  American  species  of  Catalpa,  with 
conspicuous  flowers  and  large  leaves,  may  also  be  recom- 
mended for  town  gardens.  Liquidambar  styracijlua,  an 
American     tree    with     maple -like     leaves    which     assume 


54 


FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 


beautiful  tints  in  autumn,  is  worthy  of  trial  in  parks  and 
gardens. 

As  mentioned  above,  scarcely  any  evergreen  tree  can 
be  recommended  for  planting  in  the  smoky  areas  of  large 
towns.  Of  the  smaller  broad-leaved  evergreen  trees  and 
shrubs,  that  is,  those  which  do  not  belong  to  the  conifers, 
the  most  resistant  to  the  evil  conditions  of  towns  are 
probably  box,  Enonymus  and  Aucuba.  If  hollies  are  to  be 
planted,  it  is  decidedly  of  advantage  to  select  the  vigorous 
large-leaved  kinds,  which  are  of  hybrid  origin,  such  as 
Hex  Hodginsii,  I.  Mundyi,  I.  Wihoni,  I.  nigricans,  and 
/.  camelliaefolia.  In  seaside  towns  one  of  the  most,  useful 
trees  is  the  evergreen  oak  (Quercns  Ilex),  which  is  excellent 
as  a  wind-screen. 

Scarcely  any  conifer  will  succeed  in  the  interior  of  a 
smoky  town,  the  most  resistant  being  probably  the  Austrian 
and  Corsican  pines,  which  have  also  the  merit  of  with- 
standing wind  well  and  of  thriving  in  most  soils.  Conifers 
appear  to  be  more  sensitive  than  other  plants  to  smoke 
or  dust.  This  is  due  to  their  leaves  having  peculiar  sunk 
stomatic  openings  which  are  designed  to  check  transpiration, 
but  form  efficient  traps  for  particles  of  soot  or  dust.      It  is 


Fig.  6. — Stoma  of  leaf  of  Silver  Fir,  showing  deposit  of  soot. 
(From  Cohen  and  Ruston,  Smoke.) 


by  means  of  the  stomatic  openings  that  the  gaseous  inter- 
changes take  place  in  the  leaf;  and  if  these  openings  are 
blocked,  the  assimilation  of  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  is 
stopped  and  the  plant  is  no  longer  able  to  obtain  food. 
Conifers    may   occasionally    be    useful    in    town    parks    in 


TREES  IN  TOWNS  55 

providing  shelter,  but  they  cannot  be  utilised  in  streets. 
The  curious  Chinese  maidenhair  tree  {Ginkgo  hiloha)  thrives 
in  London,  and  is  worthy  of  a  place  in  town  parks  and 
gardens  on  account  of  the  remarkable  beauty  of  its  foliage. 

In  the  planting  of  streets  it  must  be  remembered  that 
trees  die  unless  their  roots  are  freely  supplied  with  air  as 
well  as  moisture.  Pavements,  such  as  asphalt,  which  seal 
up  the  soil  from  access  to  the  air,  render  the  growth  of 
trees  impossible.  The  planting  of  trees,  as  is  now  usually 
done  in  English  towns,  with  grilles  or  iron  gratings  around 
their  bases,  which  are  supposed  to  admit  sufficient  air  and 
moisture  to  the  roots,  is  a  poor  practice.  Trees  planted 
in  this  way  never  do  well.  Moreover,  the  gratings  are 
expensive,  and  in  all  probability  are  not  more  effective 
for  the  admission  of  air  and  rain  than  ordinary  gravel. 
The  universal  practice  in  America  of  planting  trees  along 
a  continuous  strip  of  grass  turf  should  be  adopted  wherever 
possible.  The  width  of  the  grass  strip  should  be  at  least 
4  feet.  The  narrowest  street  which  can  be  conveniently 
planted  is  50  feet  wide;  and  this  may  be  divided  into  a 
oO-feet  roadway  with  two  footpaths  each  10  feet  in  width, 
the  latter  consisting  of  a  6 -feet  pavement  next  the  houses 
and  a  4-feet  planting  strip  next  the  curb.  A  broad  strip 
of  turf  between  the  walk  and  the  curb  enhances  the  beauty  of 
the  street,  and  gives  the  trees  a  better  cliance  of  vigorous  life. 

Streets  60  feet  wide  are  ideal,  with  a  roadway  30  feet 
wide,  and  footpaths  each  15  feet  wide,  on  which  can  be  laid 
out  a  lawn  strip  of  6  feet.  In  residential  quarters,  the 
houses  are  usually  set  well  back,  and  at  some  distance  from 
the  footpaths,  which  gives  more  room  for  the  trees  to  develop. 
In  Paris  no  trees  are  planted  on  streets  with  tall  buildings, 
which  have  footpaths  less  than  13  feet  wide  and  roadways 
20  feet  wide.  Narrow  pavements  and  sharp  corners  of 
streets  are  unsuitable  for  trees.  Trees  should  be  set  about  40 
feet  apart  in  the  line,  alternately  in  the  two  rows  in  a  street. 

Free-growing,  clean,  healthy  young  trees  with  good  roots 
must  be  chosen ;  and  the  best  size  is  about  2  to  3  inches 
in  diameter.     The  single  stake  is  best,  such  as  a  larch  pole, 


56  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

14  feet  long,  with  its  base  stripped  of  bark  and  tarred, 
driven  well  into  the  ground.  The  tree,  covered  with  a  strip 
of  tarred  felting,  is  tied  to  the  stake  in  two  or  three  places, 
with  ^  inch  Manila  rope  slipped  through  a  piece  of  india- 
rubber  hose,  about  8  or  9  inches  long.  This  prevents  the 
stem  of  the  tree  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  stake. 
The  ties  attaching  the  trees  to  the  stakes  must  be  loosened 
in  time,  so  that  they  may  not  eat  into  the  bark. 

Pruning  is  necessary,  but  only  in  order  to  take  off  the 
lower  branches,  so  as  to  allow  unimpeded  the  passage  of 
pedestrians  and  vehicles;  and  also  in  rare  cases,  as  in  narrow 
streets,  where  trees  must  be  kept  in  a  limited  space.  Prun- 
ing is  expensive ;  and  the  performance  of  a  surgical  operation 
on  a  tree  is  no  more  to  its  good  than  the  same  on  an 
animal.  The  appearance  of  trees  in  towns,  not  only  in 
streets,  but  in  parks,  with  their  trunks  marked  with  great 
scars  or  wounds,  is  very  distressing,  and  is,  moreover,  the 
cause  in  many  cases  of  disease  and  death.  The  spectacle 
of  untrained  men  going  about  hacking  trees  in  towns  is  a 
painful  but  common  one.  The  whole  art  of  pruning  is  to 
cut  away  in  time  the  branches  that  must  be  removed,  that 
is  when  they  are  small,  say  less  than  ^  inch  in  diameter ; 
and  to  cut  only  a  little  at  a  time,  applying  a  dressing  of 
coal  tar  to  the  freshly  cut  scar.  Trees  require  all  their 
branches  in  order  to  grow  vigorously,  and,  left  to  themselves, 
they  generally  make  a  finer  bole  than  if  maltreated.  All 
the  so-called  systems  of  pruning  trees  are  to  be  avoided. 
If  you  ever  prune,  prune  so  that  the  tree  looks  as  if  it  had 
not  been  pruned  at  all.    Dead  wood,  of  course,  can  be  removed. 

People  will  be  more  interested  in  the  preservation  of 
trees  if  they  know  something  about  them.  It  is  advisable 
then  to  place  one  or  two  inscriptions  in  each  street,  giving 
the  date  of  planting  and  the  names  of  the  species  used. 

The  preservation  of  trees  is  as  important  as  their  plant- 
ing; and  in  every  large  town  it  is  advisable  to  form  a 
committee  to  look  after  the  trees.  Sometimes  a  beautiful 
tree  is  felled  or  sound  branches  are  lopped  off,  and  the 
timber  subsequently  sold  by  untrustworthy  borough  servants. 


TREES  IN  TOWNS  57 

The  careless  laying  of  water  pipes  and  electric  mains  causes 
the  death  of  many  trees.  Changes  in  the  level  of  a  road 
or  street  often  involve  the  destruction  of  trees.  The  old 
tree  in  a  village,  at  a  cross-roads,  or  in  the  market-place  of 
a  small  town,  ought  to  be  guarded  with  great  care,  as  it 
gives  to  each  place  its  own  peculiar  aspect,  and  causes  it  to 
linger  in  the  memory  of  those  who  have  left  their  early 
home. 

NOTES 

1.  See  W.  SolotarofT,  Shade  Trees  in  Tawns  and  Cities,  p.  4  (1911). 

2.  See  A.  Kigg  in  Journ.  R.  Sanitary  Inst,  xxvii.  p.  160  (1906). 

3.  An  interesting  account  of  the  effect  of  the  smoke  of  Glasgow  on  trees 
growing  on  the  Pollok  estate  is  given  by  John  Boyd  in  Travs.  lioy.  Scot. 
Arbor.  Soc.  xvii.  122  (1904).  He  distinguishes  clearly  the  effects  of  acid 
in  the  smoke,  of  soot,  and  of  the  darkened  atmosphere.  "  A  leaf  affected  by 
acid,  if  held  up  in  a  strong  light,  shows  little  clear  spots,  wherever  the  action 
has  begun.  Through  time  these  spots  usually  become  brown,  almost  black 
in  some  plants.  A  clear  margin  is  seen  around  the  coloured  part,  which 
distinguishes  it  from  any  fungus  disease.  This  foini  of  injury  is  generally 
attributed  to  sulphurous  acid  gas,  and  may  be  seen  more  or  less  in  almost  all 
species  of  broad-leaved  trees  growing  in  a  smoky  district  ;  but  the  various 
trees  are  not  all  affected  to  the  same  extent."  Horse-chestnut  is  very  badly 
injured  in  this  way.  The  oaks,  especially  Quercus  Ccrris,  withstand  acid  in 
the  smoke  better  than  any  other  species.  Ash  is  next  in  resisting  power, 
followed  by  elm  and  sycamore.  Service  trees,  birch,  and  rowan  are  little 
affected,  and  are  very  suitable  for  smoky  localities,  as  they  are  not  so  partial 
to  a  good  soil  as  the  trees  just  mentioned.  Boyd  correctly  attributes  the  ill- 
health  of  conifers  at  Pollok  to  the  clicking  by  soot  of  the  stomatic  openings 
of  the  leaves.  Scots  jiine,  which  suffers  very  badly,  showed  when  the  needles 
were  examined  almost  every  pore  to  be  more  or  less  closed  by  soot.  The 
leaves  of  Scots  pine  also  fall  off  prematurely,  "it  being  quite  common  to  see 
them  at  the  beginning  of  the  gi-owing  season  with  nothing  but  the  previous 
year's  leaves  adorning  them,  instead  of  two  years  complete  and  the  greater 
])ortion  of  the  third,  thus  giving  them  a  thin,  tufted,  stunted,  and  unhealthy 
look."  The  diminution  of  increment  of  growth  in  the  Pollok  ))lantations  is 
also  remarkable,  amounting  in  the  case  of  broad-leaved  trees,  like  oak,  ash, 
sycamore,  beech,  elm,  hornbeam,  birch,  service  and  rowan,  and  in  Austrian 
pine,  to  10  or  20  per  cent,  and  in  the  case  of  the  worst  sufferers,  Scots  pine, 
Weymouth  pine,  and  spruce,  to  20  to  40  per  cent.  The  number  of  stems  per 
acre  is  also  reduced,  so  that  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  cultivate  trees 
successfully  from  a  commercial  point  of  view  in  any  smoky  locality. 

The  effect  of  the  smoke  of  blast  furnaces,  of  numerous  passing  locomotives, 
etc.,  on  neighbouring  trees  in  narrowing  the  annual  rings  is  well  described 
and  illustrated  by  J.  F.  Clevenger  in  Mellon  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Smoke 
Investigation,  Bulletin  N'o.  7  (1913),  "The  Effect  of  the  Soot  in  Smoke  on 
Vegetation."  See  also  American  Forestry,  Dee.  1917,  p.  732.  A.  L.  Bakke, 
in  loiva  State  College  of  Agricnlturc,  Bull.  14f,  (1913),  established  tliat  the 
vegetation  about  a  manufacturing  concern  can  be  mapped  in  concentric  zones, 


58  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

each  belt  having  a  certain  form  or  forms  of  plant  life,  since  certain  s})ecies 
are  more  susceptible  to  smoke  injury  than  others. 

Crowther  and  Ruston  summarise  the  results  of  several  years'  experiments 
and  observations  on  the  effect  of  smoke  on  plants  in  and  around  Leeds  in 
Brit.  Assoc.  lieport,  1915,  p.  780  (1916),  from  which  we  may  c^uote : 
"Trees  and  shrubs  make  only  a  stunted  growth  ;  dead  and  dying  trees  are 
common  objects.  Conifers  are  particularly  sensitive.  Destruction  of  young 
shoots  and  buds  is  noticeable.  Cliaracteristic  discoloration  of  leaves  takes 
place  apart  from  the  inevitable  coating  of  tarry  soot,  and  the  fall  of  the  leaf 
is  greatly  accelerated.  The  colours  of  flowers  fall  short  of  their  normal 
intensity.  Previous  observations  on  the  choking  of  stomata  by  soot  particles 
have  been  continued.  In  the  garden  tests  within  the  city  boundaries,  the 
produce  (three  crops)  obtained  in  the  '  cleanest '  garden  was  fully  three  times 
greater  than  that  obtained  in  the  '  dirtiest '  area.  In  soils  long  exposed  to 
smoke  pollution,  there  is  a  marked  failure  of  root-development,  root  hairs 
and  fibrous  roots  being  few  or  absent."  See  Cohen  and  Ruston,  Smoke,  a, 
Study  of  Toicn  Air  (1912)  ;  Ruston,  Report  of  Smoke  Abatement  League  of 
Great  Britain,  pp.  44-53  (1911);  Pierce  in  Popular  Science  Monthly,  1911, 
p.  332. 

4.  The  chief  cause  of  injury  to  vegetation,  due  to  tlie  .smoke  of  copper 
smelting  works,  is  sulpliur  dioxide,  according  to  Haywood  in  U.S.  Dept, 
Agric.  Bur.  Cltem.  Bull.  113  (1908).  In  deciduous  trees  the  injury,  when 
acute,  consists  of  irregular  reddened  areas  of  dead  leaf-tissue  between  the 
veins.  The  region  in  tlie  immediate  vicinity  of  the  midrib  and  principal 
veins  is  last  to  be  attected.  Repeated  acute  injury  of  this  sort  kills  the  twigs 
and  finally  brings  al)out  the  death  of  the  whole  tree.  Deciduous  trees  in 
S.E.  Tennessee  appear  to  be  more  resistant  than  conifers,  and  are  resistant 
in  the  following  order,  the  most  highly  resistant  being  named  first :  Qaercas 
alba,  Acer  rubrum,  Poimlus  deltoides,  Lirioclemlron  tulipifera,  Bobinia 
Pseudacacia,  Platanus  occiclcn.talis,  and  Ulmus  crcossa.  See  G.  G.  Hedgcock 
in  Journ.   Wash.  Acad,  of  Sciences,  iv.  (1914)  p.  70. 

The  vegetation  at  Foyers,  Inverness-shire,  is  affected  by  the  dust  of  the 
cryolite  carried  by  the  wind  from  the  British  Aluminium  Works.  Coniferous 
trees  are  being  killed,  whilst  deciduous  leaved  trees  remain  uninjured.  See 
G.  West  in  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinbiirgfi,  vol.  25,  pt.  2,  p.  995,  fig.  25  (1906). 

5.  An  investigation  into  the  injurious  effects  of  tarred  roads  upon 
neighbouring  trees  has  been  made  at  Milan  by  U.  Brizi.  The  trees  most 
susceptible  are  the  common  horse-chestnut  {Acsculus  Hippocastcmum)  and 
the  red-flowering  horse-chestnut  (A.  ca/riiea),  tlie  leaves  of  which,  at  the 
beginning  of  summer,  turn  rusty  at  the  edge  and  curl  up  slightly,  while 
their  surface  is  covered  with  numerous  small  spots  which  at  first  are  yellow 
and  look  as  if  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  shining  varnish.  The  leaf  then 
curls  up  more  and  more,  dries,  and  is  blown  away.  Another  sensitive  tree  is 
the  beech.  The  damage  is  caused  almost  entirely  by  the  very  fine  dust  due 
to  the  passage  of  motor-cars.  The  dust  settles  slowly  and  is  most  abundant 
on  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees.  Once  deposited,  the  small  particles  of 
tar  give  off  injurious  vapours  when  strongly  heated  by  the  sun.  The  parts 
not  directly  reached  by  the  sun  never  show  this  damage.  The  best  remedy 
is  to  keep  down  the  dust  by  the  regular  and  abundant  watering  of  the  roads. 
Scientific  American,  2nd  Nov.  1918,  p.  351. 

6.  See  A.  D.  Richardson  in  Trans.  Scot.  Hoii.  Assoc,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp. 
80-82,  Plates  I.,  II.,  III.  (1913). 

7.  See  Elwes  and  Henrv,  Trees  of  Great  Britain,  vol.  vii.  pp.  1869-1871 
(1913). 


CHAPTER    VI 

AFFORESTATION    OF    I'lT   MOUNDS 

In  the  Black  Country  of  South  Staffordshire  aud  North 
Worcestershire,  smoke  and  flame  are  poured  forth  day  and 
night  from  innumerable  chimneys,  rendering  the  atmosphere 
gloomy  and  unhealthy.  Many  spots,  once  green  fields  and 
woodlands,  are  now  covered  with  pit  mounds — great  heaps 
of  slag,  shale,  and  coal  waste  (Fig.  8).  These  render 
the  landscape  desolate,  as  they  are  poorly  clad  with  vegeta- 
tion, and  assist  by  their  depressing  nature  the  bad  effect  of 
the  atmosphere  on  the  physical  and  moral  health  of  the 
population.  The  efforts  to  afforest  these  barren  heaps  and 
cover  them  with  the  verdure  of  trees  is  an  important 
hygienic  measure. 

The  Black  Country  has  at  least  30,000  acres  of  pit 
banks,  about  14,000  acres  of  which  are  suitable  for  planting 
at  the  present  moment ;  and  the  other  coal-fields  of  Great 
Britain  have  many  times  this  area  available  for  afforestation. 
The  Midland  Reaffbresting  Association  (1)  was  founded 
on  12th  February  1903,  with  the  idea  of  getting  rid  of 
the  depressing  desolation  of  the  pit  and  factory  rubbish 
heaps,  and  "  to  re-establish  forestry  as  a  business  in  the 
Midlands." 

The  plantations  made  by  the  Association,  though  only 
experimental  and  on  a  small  scale,  have  been  successful 
not  merely  in  beautifying  the  landscape,  but  have  also 
actually  shown  the  possibility  of  producing  profitably  timber 
of  a  useful  kind  on  these  barren  waste  heaps.  It  is  only 
59 


60  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

the  old  pit  banks  that  will  grow  trees,  as  the  slag  and  slate 
must  weather  for  a  long  time  before  a  suitable  soil  is  formed. 
This  soil  is  so  poor  that  it  can  scarcely  ever  be  turned  to 
agricultural  use ;  yet  it  can  be  clothed  with  sound  planta- 
tions of  certain  species  of  trees.  The  planting  of  these 
hideous  mounds,  which  are  an  eyesore  to  the  people,  will 
be  made  compulsory  after  the  war,  if  the  principle  is  carried 
out  that  all  waste  land  shall  be  made  productive.  An 
additional  reason  for  such  afforestation  is  the  salutary  effect 
of  the  experimental  plantations  on  the  moral  health  of  the 
children  and  of  their  parents  ;  and  any  measure  that  in- 
creases the  joy  of  living  in  dreary  neighbourhoods  must  be 
welcomed  in  the  future. 

The  pit  banks  are  of  three  kinds.  Those  consisting  of 
furnace  slag  need  not  be  considered,  as  this  material  is  of 
some  money  value,  and  is  gradually  removed  'for  railway 
ballast.  Coal  waste  or  carbonaceous  shale,  accumulated  in 
mounds,  generally  takes  fire  and  in  some  cases  burns  for 
years,  giving  as  a  final  result  a  soil  of  red  and  friable  ash, 
which  supports  tree  growth  fairly  well.  The  third  kind  of 
pit  bank  made  up  of  clunch  or  shale  is  not  a  promising 
ground  for  trees,  but  certain  species  will  succeed  on  it. 

Planting  of  pit  mounds  and  similar  waste  ground  has 
been  done  on  the  Continent,  but  little  has  been  attempted 
in  England,  though  one  colliery  is  reported  (2)  to  have 
drawn  for  some  years  pit  props  from  its  own  spoil  heaps. 
Walsall  Town  Council  planted  one  pit  bank  at  its  own 
expense  in  1886,  which  is  now  known  as  Eeed's  Wood 
Park.  Mr.  Martineau  had  it  valued  when  it  was  16 
years  old,  and  it  worked  out  at  £17  per  acre  as  it  stood. 
The  belts  of  timber  that  are  now  visible  there  show  what 
valuable  tree  growth  can  be  obtained.  The  Midland  Re- 
afforesting  Association,  however,  had  to  contend  with 
much  apathy  in  the  beginning,  and  could  only  secure  very 
small  areas,  which  have  been  planted  on  various  terms. 
Some  plantations  have  been  formed  for  the  landowner  by 
the  Association  at  a  contract  price  for  planting,  fencing, 
and  replacing  dead  trees  for  a  period  of  some  years.      The 


.  ^  t 


BkRKS  s.  Spoil  BAriK3    .  s.  . 


I904I  '  •  ***  ri 


WOti/LR  HAMPTON 


^^,v^ 


Fk;.  7. — Parks  aurl  Spoil  Banks.  Black  Country. 


62  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

Association,  in  other  cases,  has  taken  the  pit  bank  on  lease. 
When  the  spoil  banks  have  been  owned  by  District  Councils 
or  other  Corporations,  the  Association  has  supplied  the 
trees  and  given  advice ;  while  the  labour,  which  is  nearly 
always  casual  yet  satisfactory,  has  been  paid  for  by  the 
public  bodies.  In  one  case,  the  Moorcroft  Plantation,  the 
Association  has  been  helped  by  two  grants,  amounting  in 
all  to  £150,  from  the  Development  Commissioners.  A 
most  interesting  feature  has  been  the  starting  of  plantations 
by  about  a  dozen  Board  Schools.  The  Churchyard  of  West 
Coseley  has  been  planted,  at  the  instance  of  the  Association, 
with  400  trees,  which  will  in  time  grow  into  a  small  wood 
of  great  value  in  improving  the  amenities  of  the  landscape. 
Waste  land  adjoining  the  sewage  farm  at  Kidderminster 
and  the  shale  mounds  beside  the  Stanfield  Sanatorium  have 
been  planted  by  the  local  authorities  on  plans  suggested  by 
the  Association. 

The  manifold  activities  of  a  voluntary  association  are 
here  manifest.  Unhampered  by  red  tape,  and  with  en- 
thusiasm in  lieu  of  pecuniary  resources,  such  an  association 
has  made  valuable  experiments  of  a  varied  character,  based 
on  which  more  extensive  work  can  be  carried  out  in  the 
future,  either  by  the  local  authorities  or  by  the  Forestry 
Board,  which  we  hope  to  see  constituted  after  peace  comes. 

Attempts  were  made  at  first  to  establish  timber  growth 
on  the  mouuds  by  sowing  broadcast  the  seeds  of  forest  trees 
in  situ  ;  but  this  method  proved  a  failure  and  was  abandoned 
after  1904.  The  planting  of  two-  or  three-year-old  seedling 
trees  is  now  invariably  the  practice ;  and  the  only  seeds 
now  sown  are  those  of  shrubs  like  gorse  and  broom,  which 
are  intended  to  act  as  temporary  screens.  Natural  seedlings 
of  birch  may,  however,  be  seen  on  the  big  mound  at 
Timber  Tree  Colliery,  Cradley  Heath,  which  was  planted 
with  birch  in  1886.  These  seedlings,  Mr.  Martineau  tells 
me,  creep  north-east  quite  steadily,  following  up  the  fiery 
part  of  the  mound  as  the  fire  retreats. 

The  technique  of  planting  has  been  simple,  the  main 
difficulty   and   expense   being    the    proper   fencing   of  the 


AFFORESTATION  OF  PIT  MOUNDS  63 

plantations  and  their  continued  protection.  Herein  lies 
the  importance  of  enlisting  in  such  a  movement  the  active 
help  and  sympathy  of  school  children  and  their  parents. 

The  species  used  have  varied  with  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  atmosphere.  The  Black  Country,  on  account  of 
the  acid  fumes  from  its  chimneys,  is  not  favourable  to 
conifers ;  but  the  Association  has  begun  to  plant  Sitka 
spruce,  while  in  some  districts  larch,  Scots  pine,  and  common 
spruce  might  be  tried.  The  tree  which  succeeds  best,  not  only 
on  the  loose  and  friable  ash,  but  also  on  the  refractory 
shale,  is  the  common  alder.  Birch  thrives  on  the  ashy 
soil,  except  where  the  fumes  are  unusually  dense.  On 
considerably  weathered  mounds,  on  which  grass  is  growing, 
ash,  sycamore,  and  wych  elm  thrive  fairly  well.  The 
black  Italian  poplar  is  usually  planted  around  mounds ; 
and,  as  it  grows  fast,  serves  as  a  protection  belt.  This 
shelter  is  required,  as  most  of  the  pit  banks  are  500  to  700 
feet  above  the  sea  and  are  much  exposed  to  strong  winds. 

The  wood  of  the  two  most  successful  species,  alder  and 
birch,  is  marketable  at  good  prices  in  Birmingham  and  in 
the  Black  Country,  being  much  used  for  handles  of  small 
tools,  ,of  electric  switches,  and  of  different  utensils.  They 
are  sought  for  by  the  numerous  wood  turners  of  the 
district,  as  well  as  by  many  firms  which  make  their  wood- 
fittings  in  their  own  works.  The  cost  of  planting  has  been 
about  £6  per  acre  for  trees  five  feet  apart,  in  addition  to 
Is.  per  lineal  yard  for  fencing;  but  it  would  be  better  to 
plant  the  trees  four  feet  apart  at  a  greater  proportionate  cost. 
The  growth  of  the  trees  has  been  good,  birch  and  alder  set 
out  in  190r)-1908  being  now  18  to  24  feet  high,  while 
poplars  in  1916  had  attained  in  some  belts  as  much  as  30 
feet.  There  are  altogether  36  plantations,  the  largest 
(Moorcroft)  being  34  acres.  The  others  are  considerably 
smaller,  ^  acre  to  5  acres.  The  total  area  planted  is 
S2  acres. 

The  work  of  the  Midland  licaPforesting  Association  has 
been  greatly  encouraged  by  the  Education  Committee  of 
the  Rowlev  liegis  District  Council      The  historv  of  one  of 


64  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

the  school  plantations  will  prove  of  interest.  When  the 
new  schools  at  Doulton  Eoad  were  opened  on  29th  November 
1909,  the  ground  (Fig.  9)  around  the  buildings  which 
was  not  needed  for  play  was  devoted  to  planting.  This  was 
carried  out,  the  occasion  being  made  an  Arbor  Day  festival. 
Five  hundred  trees  were  planted  by  the  teachers,  scholars, 
and  members  of  council,  each  one  being  labelled  with  the 
name  of  its  planter.  In  1916,  7  years  afterwards,  the 
trees  averaged  as  follows  : 

Poplar,       18  feet  higli,  14  inches  in  girth  at  3  feet  from  the  ground. 
Birch,         13         „  7  „  „ 

Ash,  14         „  4  „  „ 

Sycamore,  12        „  4  „  „ 

Fig.  9,  from  a  photograph  taken  in  1913,  shows  tlie 
growth  of  this  plantation. 

Mr.  Teague,  the  head  master,  informs  me  that  the 
interest  taken  in  the  trees  by  the  school  children  and  their 
parents  is  very  marked.  Observation  lessons  in  the  school 
plantation,  and  in  the  Black  Waggon  plantation  at  some 
distance  off,  are  systematically  carried  out.  These  observa- 
tions are  partly  meteorological,  on  rainfall,  direction  and 
force  of  the  wind,  effects  of  late  frost  and  drought.  The  trees, 
fungi,  and  insects  are  studied,  and  lessons  on  geology, 
chemistry,  and  hygiene  are  given  in  relation  to  the  life  of 
the  trees.  The  children  and  their  parents  have  been  quick 
to  see  that,  like  the  trees,  they  themselves  need  more  light, 
air,  sunshine,  and  cleanliness.  Habits  of  observation  and 
reflection  are  induced  and  fostered ;  and  healthy  instincts 
are  implanted  in  the  growing  minds.  Mr.  Teague  has 
noticed  a  great  improvement  in  the  manners  of  the  children, 
whose  physical  health  has  been  improved  by  the  digging, 
staking,  and  other  work,  as  well  as  by  the  observations 
taken  in  the  open  air  in  the  plantations.  The  children 
become  less  fond  of  exciting  town  amusements,  like  the 
cinematograph.  The  civic  sense  has  become  developed ; 
and  the  trees  are  guarded  and  protected  by  the  boys, 
supported  by  the  public  opinion  of  their  parents. 

Mr.  Evans  of  Wright's  Lane  Council  School,   Old  Hill, 


11 


'  l. 


°<^-  iv- ^^  -:  ' 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  PIT  MOUNDS  65 

Staffordshire,  where  100  trees  have  been  planted  in  the 
playground,  says  that  the  influence  on  the  children  has 
been  uplifting.  The  district  is  inhabited  by  a  rough  class, 
yet  the  absence  of  vandalism  is  now  noticeable.  Here, 
however,  the  tree- planting  is  too  small  in  its  scope  to 
have  effected  as  yet  any  great  change  in  the  tone,  manners, 
and  spirit  of  the  people.  Mr.  Martineau  confirms  the 
remarks  of  these  teachers,  and  says  that  the  plantations 
have  had  a  most  cheering  effect  on  the  people  near-by. 
Some  of  the  plantations  are  regarded  by  the  neighbours 
with  positive  affection. 

The  Black  Waggon  plantation,  which  has  been  taken 
charge  of  by  the  Higher  Grade  School  of  Eowley  Kegis 
Parish,  is  a  fair  example  of  the  average  growth  to  be  obtained 
in  this  kind  of  forestry.  This  mound  consists  partly  of 
grey  shale  and  partly  of  shale  mixed  with  slack.  The 
slack  was  fired  and  much  of  the  ground  is  burned  out.  One 
part  is  still  hot,  and  has  naturally  not  been  touched.  Alder 
has  been  planted  on  the  sticky  grey  shale ;  birch  on  the 
burnt-out  part,  a  loose  and  very  friable  soil;  and  black 
Italian  poplar  on  the  lower  slopes.  Some  other  species 
have  been  tried  experimentally,  chiefly  at  the  base  of  the 
mound,  viz.  willow,  sycamore,  wych  elm,  grey  alder, 
Bobinia,  and  Sitka  spruce ;  but  thorn  and  Austrian  pine 
have  failed,  and  the  soil  is  not  good  enough  for  sycamore. 
Black  Waggon  mound  was  planted  in  1907-1909,2^  acres 
being  covered  with  5000  trees ;  and  the  average  measure- 
ments of  the  three  chief  species  in  November  1916 
were : 

Poplar,  19  feet  high,  10  inches  in  girth  at  3  feet  above  the  ground. 
Alder,    17.V        „  8  „  „ 

Birch,     16"        „  7 

The  even  growth,  due  to  close  planting,  is  remarkable  ;  and 
this  huge  black  bald  mound,  formerly  an  eyesore  to  the 
district,  is  now  covered  with  splendid  trees,  likely  to 
develop  into  good  timber.  The  Midland  Reaflforesting 
Association  has  proved  that  valuable  plantations  of  certain 


66  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

species  can  be  established  on  pit  and  spoil  mounds,  im- 
proving the  amenities  of  the  district  and  constituting  a 
hygienic  measure  of  some  importance.  In  other  colliery 
districts  the  lesson  ought  to  be  taken  to  heart.  All 
districts  should  organise  themselves  to  supply  the  shortage 
of  timber  that  is  certain  in  the  future,  instead  of  leaving 
thousands  of  acres  to  waste  which  bring  in  no  rent  and  no 
profit.  This  work  is  capable  of  great  extension,  but  in 
localities  with  chemical  works  trees  may  prove  un- 
successful. 

The  School  Plantations  of  the  Black  Country  may  be 
imitated  in  all  parts  of  rural  England  and  in  the  sister 
countries.  In  some  parts  of  France  little  forestry  societies 
(3)  have  been  formed  in  connection  with  the  schools,  a 
movement  due  to  M.  Mayet,  schoolmaster  at  Avignon-l^s- 
Saint-Claude  (Jura).  There  were  in  1910  about  200  of 
these  little  societies,  which  develop  among  the  children  the 
love  of  trees  and  the  elements  of  forestry.  Moreover,  the 
scholars  themselves  make  plantations  under  the  direction  of 
the  teachers,  and  already  in  1910  they  had  planted  some 
hundreds  of  acres  and  set  out  more  than  2,000,000  trees 
in  the  communal  forests.  Certain  communes  in  the  east 
of  France  have  set  aside  for  the  scholars  experimental  plots, 
well  fenced  and  netted,  where  experiments  in  planting  and 
raising  seedlings  have  been  carried  out,  resulting  in  some 
cases  in  the  initiation  of  improvements  in  the  great  forests. 
In  the  regions  of  the  Loire  and  Vosges  some  of  the  school 
forestry  societies  have  been  given  funds  by  generous  donors, 
which  are  applied  to  the  acquisition  of  land  for  planting,  the 
proceeds  of  the  woods  so  created  being  assigned  to  the 
schoolmaster  as  a  supplement  to  his  pension. 

Just  as  the  tiny  seed  may  become  a  great  tree,  so  these 
little  village  and  school  societies  may  become  the  nucleus  of 
great  social  progress.  To  get  the  scholars  and  the  teachers 
into  the  open  air,  and  in  touch  with  farming,  gardening,  and 
forestry,  will  be  the  great  step  towards  the  hygiene  of  the 
Social  Organism. 

I  may  here  add  some  notes  concerning  the  reclamation 


AFFORESTATION  OF  PIT  MOUNDS  67 

of  pit  mounds  by  private  owners.  The  Scremerston  Old 
Colliery  Mound  was  successfully  planted  in  1887,  at  the 
instance  of  Mr.  John  Davidson,  agent  of  the  Greenwich 
Hospital  estate  in  Northumberland.  This  mound,  which 
had  long  been  a  high  and  bare  unsightly  heap  on  the  side  of 
the  Old  North  Eoad  about  three  miles  south  of  Berwick,  is 
now  a  pleasing  tree-clad  hill.  Mr.  D.  Smith,  the  forester 
who  actually  carried  out  the  planting,  tells  me  that  three 
species  were  tried — larch,  Scots  pine,  and  birch.  The  birch 
trees  did  not  thrive,  and  were  early  removed  as  thinnings. 
The  Scots  pine  proved  most  successful,  and  are  now  fine 
trees,  30  to  40  feet  in  height.  The  growth  has  been  best 
on  the  part  of  the  mound  which  had  been  on  fire.  The 
success  of  this  plantation,  which  is  fully  exposed  to  the  west 
wind,  is  remarkable.  The  difficulty  of  establishing  trees  in 
the  loose  shingly  refuse  of  this  high  and  exposed  mound  was 
overcome  by  planting  first  a  few  rows  of  trees  around  the 
base  of  the  mound,  and  in  the  shelter  thus  obtained,  con- 
tinuing with  a  few  more  rows,  and  thus  by  successive 
bands  in  five  or  six  years  the  whole  mound  was  planted  to 
the  summit,  which  is  nearly  100  feet  high,  without  a  single 
tree  being  blown  out  by  the  wind. 

Mr.  George  Bolam,  who  has  written  an  article  (4)  on 
the  planting  of  pit  mounds  in  Northumberland,  mentions 
that  in  later  years,  and  closely  adjoining  Scremerston,  Lady 
Frances  Osborne  has  successfully  clothed  with  young  trees 
some  bare  pit  heaps  that  had  for  more  than  a  generation 
disfigured  her  property  at  Ord  and  Murton. 

The  Charley  pit  bank  near  Mealsgate,  Cumberland,  about 
four  acres  in  extent,  has  been  successfully  covered  with 
trees.  The  colliery  was  abandoned  in  1897,  and  the  first 
step  taken  was  the  sowing  of  rape  and  grass  seed  on  the 
mound.  The  roots  of  the  herbage  thus  obtained  have  helped 
in  the  disintegration  of  the  surface.  Planting  was  begun  in 
1898,  the  trees  being  planted  in  holes,  in  each  of  which 
one  or  two  buckets  of  good  soil  had  been  put.  Numerous 
species  were  tried,  of  which  larch,  Scots  pine,  and  birch 
have  shown  the  most  vigorous  growth,  the  earliest  planted 


68  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

of  these  being  18  to  24  feet  high  in  1912.  Oak,  ash, 
beech,  sycamore,  and  elm  also  did  fairly  well.  This  is 
remarkable,  considering  the  character  of  the  mound,  of 
which  only  the  surface  has  disintegrated,  the  material  be- 
neath being  caked  into  hard  masses  containing  considerable 
quantities  of  pyrites.  In  spite  of  this,  the  trees  have  made 
nearly  as  good  growth  on  the  mound  as  trees  of  the  same 
species  in  ordinary  soil  in  the  neighbourhood,  according  to 
measurements  made  by  Mr.  P.  Murray  Thomson  (5). 

In  the  colliery  districts  of  Scotland  a  few  attempts  have 
been  made  to  plant  the  spoil  heaps,  which  are  locally  known 
as  pit  bings  (6).  When  these  consist  of  a  mixture  of  shale 
and  stones,  trees  grow  readily,  the  best  species  being  prob- 
ably alder.  Successful  results  have  been  obtained  by  Mr. 
Whitelaw  at  Gartshore,  near  Kirkintilloch.  Mr.  J.  Milne 
Home  sends  me  some  notes  about  recent  plantations  on  pit 
banks  near  Dalkeith.  On  the  upper  bing  on  Wester  Cowden 
Incline,  which  was  an  old  colliery  pit  bank  that  had  been 
left  untouched  for  many  years,  an  acre  was  planted  in  1913 
with  1200  sycamore,  450  birch,  2000  grey  alder,  and 
1200  European  larch.  At  present  grey  alder  shows  the 
best  growth,  while  larch  has  done  fairly  well,  but  sycamore 
has  been  a  failure.  In  1 9 1 4  about  2^  acres  on  the  neighbour- 
ing lower  bing  were  planted  with  2300  sycamore,  500  birch, 
and  4200  grey  alder.  It  will  be  interesting  to  watch  the 
further  growth  of  these  two  plantations.  Before  the  war 
grey  alder  was  procurable  at  a  cheap  rate  from  French 
nurseries  as  one-year  and  two-year  seedlings.  It  grows 
with  great  vigour  on  most  soils,  and  succeeds  in  wind- 
swept localities  and  in  situations  liable  to  late  and  early 
frosts.  Its  wood  is  equal  in  value  to  that  of  the  common 
alder. 

Mr.  H.  M.  Cadell  (7)  tells  me  that  about  ten  years  ago 
he  planted  up  some  old  colliery  bings  at  Grange,  Linlithgow, 
with  Japanese  larch,  Scots  pine,  etc.  The  Japanese  larch 
are  now  about  15  feet  high,  but  a  good  many  have  died. 
These  pit  heaps,  though  forty  years  old,  were  not  suffi- 
ciently disintegrated,  and  the  dry  undecomposed  material 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  PIT  MOUNDS  69 

did  not  look  very  promising  for  tree  growth.  A  shovelful 
of  good  soil  put  in  round  the  roots  at  the  time  of  planting 
greatly  assisted  the  growth  of  the  young  trees  at  the  start. 
Mr.  Cadell  believes  that  in  many  districts  pit  banks,  especi- 
ally those  at  abandoned  mines  where  there  is  neither  smoke 
nor  mischievous  people  to  injure  the  trees,  may  be  planted 
with  a  view  to  profit.  Mining  districts  are  usually  provided 
with  railways,  and  furnish  a  good  market  for  any  timber 
that  is  grown  locally. 

The  immense  shale  banks  around  the  oil  works  in  West 
Lothian  and  other  districts  are  diflicult  to  plant.  If  iron 
pyrites  is  present,  the  sulphuric  acid  formed  when  the  shale 
is  decomposed  prevents  the  growth  of  any  vegetation.  Mr. 
James  Whittou  instances  shale  bings  forty  or  fifty  years  old 
at  Nitshill  in  Eenfrewshire  on  which  not  even  a  blade  of 
grass  has  appeared.  Some  of  the  oil  shale,  however,  sup- 
ports plant  growth  fairly  well,  as  is  evident  near  Linlithgow, 
where  Mr.  Cadell  has  noticed  the  appearance  of  natural 
vegetation  on  abandoned  bings.  The  latter  might  be  planted 
with  grey  alder,  black  Italian  poplar,  etc.  It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  fumes  from  shale  works  are  deleterious  to 
the  growth  of  trees,  the  effect  being  especially  grave  when 
sulphuric  acid  required  for  refining  is  manufactured  at  the 
works  (8). 

On  an  extensive  slag  heap  at  Quaregnon,  in  Belgium, 
planted  up  in  1891  with  Robinia,  alder,  elm,  birch,  horn- 
beam, ash,  sycamore,  horse-chestnut,  laburnum,  etc.,  the  best 
species  appears  to  have  been  Robinia,  which  in  eighteen 
years  after  planting  had  attained  as  much  as  three  feet  in 
girth.  On  another  large  slag  heap,  planted  25  years, 
hybrid  black  poplar  was  also  three  feet  in  girth.  M.  C. 
Leonard,  who  gives  an  account  of  these  plantations  in 
Annales  de  Gembloiix,  Oct.  1909,  recommends  that,  after 
weathering  for  eight  or  ten  years,  a  heap  should  be  covered 
first  with  herbage  by  sowing  seeds  of  grasses,  lucerne, 
sainfoin,  etc.,  and  afterwards  be  planted  up  with  3-  to 
4 -year-old  transplants  of  Robinia,  birch,  grey  alder,  Pnmus 
serotitia,  sycamore,  and  Qicercus  rubra. 


70  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 


NOTES 

1.  See  evidence  of  Mr.  P.  E.  Martineau  before  the  Royal  Commission 
on  Coast  Erosion  and  Afforestation,  Minutes  of  Evidence,  vol.  ii.  part  ii. 
pp.  241-243  (1909),  and  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestrij,  i.  150  (1907),  and 
iii.  26-31  (1909). 

2.  In  Colliery  Guardian,  19th  Jan.  1917,  p.  125. 

3.  See  Cardot,  Manuel  de  L'Arhre,  p.  80  (1911). 

4.  In  P.  A.  Graham,  Reclaiming  the  Waste,  pp.  142-147  (1916). 

5.  See  Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xxvii.  pp.  30-33,  figs.  1-6  (1913). 

6.  See  Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xxxi.  pp.  108-109  (1917). 

7.  Mr.  Cadell,  in  Trails.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xxiii.  164  (1910),  gives 
an  account  of  the  different  kinds  of  pit  mounds  in  Scotland.  Some  mounds 
are  entirely  composed  of  black  argillaceous  shale,  locally  known  as  '  blaes,' 
which  is  not  unfavourable  to  tree  growth.  If,  however,  iron  pyrites  is 
present,  as  in  some  mounds,  the  sulphuric  acid  produced  by  its  decomposi- 
tion combines  with  the  alumina  of  the  shale,  forming  sulphate  of  alumina 
or  alum,  a  soluble  salt,  which  is  absolutely  destructive  to  vegetation.  The 
refuse  produced  in  working  oil  shale  in  the  Lothians  is  enormous  in  quantity, 
and  usually  goes  on  fire,  being  ultimately  burnt  into  a  red  porous  mass, 
which  becomes  slowly  weathered  and  crumbling  down  on  the  surface,  makes 
good  enough  soil  in  the  course  of  time  for  the  growth  of  larch,  birch,  and 
Scots  pine.  Colliery  debris  containing  fire-clay  breaks  quickly  down  into 
ordinary  clay,  and  may  support  vegetation  well  ;  but  if  it  contains  bitu- 
minous matter,  it  will  not  decompose  into  a  soil  suitable  for  trees.  Such 
black  loose  material,  though  devoid  of  pyrites,  has  lain  in  some  instances 
for  more  than  a  century  without  accumulating  much  natural  vegetation.  It 
absorbs  the  sun's  rays  and  becomes  hot  and  dry  in  summer,  so  that  plants 
have  great  difficulty  in  starting  away  at  first. 

8.  See  an  article  on  "  The  Damage  done  to  Trees  by  the  Shale  Industry  " 
in  Trails.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xvi.  p.  470  (1901). 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE    AFFORESTATION    OF    WATER    CATCHMENT    AREAS 

The  afforestation  of  water  catchment  areas  is  a  hygienic 
measure  as  well  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  timber  reserves 
of  the  nation,  as  will  be  shown  after  some  preliminary 
observations  on  the  water  supply  of  our  great  municipalities. 
Some  towns  get  their  water  supply  from  large  rivers,  as 
London  from  the  Thames  and  Aberdeen  from  the  Dee. 
Other  towns  are  supplied  by  springs,  wells,  and  deep  borings 
of  various  kinds.  The  third  method,  which  specially 
concerns  us,  is  that  of  catchment  reservoirs,  constructed  to 
impound  the  water  falling  on  upland  and  sparsely  peopled 
tracts.  Siich  gathering  grounds  in  the  Pennine  range 
supply  most  of  the  great  centres  of  population  in 
Lancashire,  Yorkshire,  and  Derbyshire.  Other  catchment 
areas  are  situated  in  Wales,  Cornwall,  and  a  few  other 
districts  in  England,  and  in  many  parts  of  Scotland. 
Natural  lakes,  often  made  larger  by  artificial  dams,  as 
Loch  Katrine  used  by  Glasgow  and  Thirlmere  by  Manchester, 
are  in  the  same  category  as  artificial  reservoirs,  and  like 
these  derive  their  water  supply  from  the  drainage  of  the 
surrounding  watersheds. 

In  many  cases  the  water  authorities  have  only  leased 
the  water  rights  and  have  not  acquired  the  ownership  of 
the  gathering  grounds.  For  the  prevention  of  pollution 
of  the  water,  they  have  relied  mainly  on  the  61st  Section  of 
the  Waterworks  Clauses  Act  of  1847,  which  makes  it  penal 
to  lead  sewage  into,  or  wantonly  to  defile,  the  reservoirs 
71 


72  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

and  the  streams  feeding  them.  This  protection  is  in- 
adequate, as  anything  that  happens  to  be  on  the  gathering 
ground  may  be  carried  down  into  the  reservoir  in  time 
of  floods  or  heavy  rains.  When  houses  or  farms  exist  on 
the  gathering  ground,  serious  impurities,  such  as  the  excreta 
from  a  typhoid  case  or  the  contents  of  a  cesspool  on  a  farm- 
steading,  may  be  swept  into  the  reservoir.  It  has  been 
found  difficult  in  practice  to  compel  farmers  living  near 
a  stream  in  a  watershed  to  re -arrange  their  middens, 
cow-houses,  etc.  The  diversion  of  sewage  from  farms  by 
drains  is  scarcely  an  adequate  protection.  Wyrell  (1) 
points  out  that  the  gathering  ground  is  frequently  not 
under  the  sanitary  jurisdiction  of  the  town  owning  the 
waterworks,  but  is  under  the  perfunctory  care  of  the  rural 
sanitary  authority.  The  Swansea  Urban  Sanitary  Authority 
has  arrangements  by  which  its  inspectors  report  weekly  on 
the  condition  of  the  farms  on  the  catchment  area,  cases 
of  infectious  disease  being  notified  by  telephone. 

It  is  now  held  by  eminent  engineers  that  in  order 
to  prevent  pollution  of  the  water  supply  from  these 
gathering  grounds,  the  entire  area  over  which  rain  is 
collected  must  be  owned  by  the  authority  responsible  for 
the  waterworks,  and  must  be  managed  solely  in  the  interest 
of  the  water  consumers. 

The  opinion  of  Mr.  Joseph  Parry  (2),  long  the  engineer 
in  charge  of  the  Liverpool  Waterworks,  is  as  follows : 
"  Notwithstanding  the  sparseness  of  the  population  in  most 
of  these  areas,  great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  keeping  the 
standard  of  purity  of  the  water  at  the  level  demanded 
by  modern  hygiene.  It  is  most  undesirable  that  the 
water  for  domestic  consumption  should  be  polluted  by 
human  sewage ;  and  rigorous  methods  should  be  adopted 
to  protect  the  streams  and  rivers  in  the  gathering  grounds 
from  contamination  by  pathogenic  organisms.  Efforts  made 
to  prevent  fouling  by  putting  in  operation  the  provisions 
of  the  Public  Health  Acts,  the  Eivers  Pollution  Act,  and 
the  bye-laws  of  conservators  have  proved  ineffective.  In 
consequence  of  the  inadequacy  and  failure  of  these  statutory 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  73 

provisions  and  bye-laws,  a  considerable  number  of  corpora- 
tions have  taken  steps  to  become  owners  of  their  own 
watersheds."  In  1903,  102,615  acres  were  known  by 
Parry  to  have  been  compulsorily  acquired  by  Act  of 
Parliament,  a  figure  considerably  increased  since  that  date. 
Manchester  was  the  first  corporation  to  acquire  complete 
ownership  of  a  catchment  area,  namely,  that  of  Thirlmere  ; 
but  the  price  paid  for  the  land  was  exorbitant.  The 
acquisition  of  Thirlmere  was  much  opposed  at  the  time,  as 
it  was  foolishly  supposed  that  the  scenery  would  be 
affected  by  the  necessary  waterworks.  The  pipes  and 
conduits  are  now  covered  by  vegetation.  Ruskin,  maddened 
to  extravagance  by  the  disfigurement  of  nature  by  modern 
industrialism,  held  that  as  Manchester  produced  no  art,  no 
literature,  it  had  taken  "  to  steal  and  sell  for  a  profit  the 
waters  of  Thirlmere  and  clouds  of  Helvellyn."  Birmingham 
has  absolute  ownership  of  part  of  the  basin  feeding  the 
Elan  and  Claerwen.  Liverpool  owns  all  the  Vyrnwy 
gathering  ground.  Leeds  in  1896-1897  obtained  special 
powers  to  purchase  compulsorily  farms  on  their  catchment 
area  in  the  Washburn  Valley.  Unfortunately  on  a  con- 
siderable number  of  gathering  grounds  in  Britain  habitations 
and  farms  have  not  been  abolished,  chiefly  owing  to  the 
large  sums  necessary  for  their  purchase  by  the  corporations, 
who  in  such  cases  usually  own  only  the  reservoirs. 

The  question  now  arises  in  what  way  ought  catchment 
areas  to  be  utilised,  as  it  is  impossible  to  leave  them  barren 
and  unprofitable.  Parry  says  :  "  In  order  to  reduce  to  a 
minimum  the  risks  of  polluting  the  water  in  a  manner 
likely  to  produce  disease,  the  first  object  must  be  to  limit 
the  resident  population  to  the  lowest  number  reasonably 
practicable.  This  cannot  be  accomplished  if  agricultural 
operations  are  allowed  to  be  carried  on  in  the  ordinary 
way,  for  no  really  satisfactory  measures  can  be  devised  for 
the  disposal  and  treatment  of  the  sewage  of  resident 
populations  of  farmers  and  labourers  with  their  families, 
and  the  pollutions  from  shippons  and  farmyards,  so  as  to 
permit  of  the  effluents  being  discharged  into  the  watercourses. 


74  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

Sheep-grazing  is  from  the  waterworks'  point  of  view  the  least 
objectionable  of  farming  pursuits.  Grouse  moors  are  still  less 
objectionable,  especially  where  the  growth  of  peat  is  kept  under 
proper  control  and  suitable  channels  are  cut  for  the  water." 

Sheep-grazing,  though  generally  believed  to  be  innocuous, 
is  not  without  danger,  as  frequently  the  sheep  die,  and 
their  dead  bodies  are  found  in  the  streams.  In  one 
gathering  ground,  in  order  to  encourage  early  notice,  the 
corporation  offers  5s.  each  for  the  bodies  of  dead  sheep 
that  may  be  found.  J.  W.  Hill  of  Cincinnati,  who  built 
many  waterworks  in  the  United  States,  criticised  (3)  severely 
the  Edinburgh  Water  Trust  for  permitting  sheep -grazing 
on  the  Talla  watershed,  and  said  it  was  a  hazardous 
experiment.  He  instanced  the  occurrence  in  Switzerland 
and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  epidemics  of  typhoid 
fever,  due  to  the  water  supply  being  contaminated  by 
cattle  which  grazed  on  the  gathering  ground.  He  objected 
to  any  occupation  of  the  catchment  area  of  a  watershed  by 
either  man  or  animals.  W.  L.  Strange  (4)  says :  "  All 
surface  catchments  are  liable  to  pollution,  for  even  in 
pastoral  areas  there  is  contamination  from  man,  animals, 
and  vegetation,  and  filtration  is  therefore  necessary. 
Pathogenic  germs  multiply  rapidly  and  one  cannot  depend 
on  their  easy  destruction.  Silt  in  drinking  water  taken 
from  rivers  in  India  gives  rise  to  bowel  complaints,  due  to 
numerous  minute  flakes  of  mica  in  the  silt." 

In  the  gathering  grounds  which  supply  water  to  New 
York  and  Boston,  U.S.A.,  there  are  numerous  dwelling- 
houses  ;  and  the  American  engineer  Hazen  says  it  is 
unnecessary  to  remove  the  population  from  a  water  catch- 
ment area  if  suitable  precautions  are  taken.  Dr.  A.  C. 
Houston  writes  to  me  in  reference  to  this  :  "  Hazen  incurs 
serious  responsibilities  by  such  a  statement.  Everything 
turns  on  the  perfected  nature  of  the  precautions,  and 
certainly  as  a  counsel  of  perfection  an  uninhabited  area 
is  most  desirable.  Still  I  am  free  to  admit  that  by  storage, 
filtration  (5),  and  sterilisation  the  most  impure  water  can 
be  rendered  safe  for  domestic  use."     The  question  of  supply 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    75 

of  water  is  not  only  a  hygienic,  but  in  some  respects  also  an 
aesthetic  one.  People  may  drink  turbid  water  and  water 
with  an  unpleasant  taste  or  smell  for  a  time  without 
perhaps  any  definite  injury  to  health.  The  aim,  however, 
must  be  always  to  secure  a  supply  of  drinking  water  that  is 
not  only  free  from  infectious  matter,  but  is  also  capable  of 
being  drunk  with  satisfaction. 

There  is  one  means  by  which  water  catchment  areas  can 
be  effectually  guarded  against  pollution  and  at  the  same 
time  be  put  to  profitable  use,  and  that  is  afforestation.  In 
considering  the  advisability  of  afforesting  a  watershed,  it 
need  not  be  assumed  that  the  entire  area  should  be  covered 
with  trees.  Questions  of  aspect,  depth  and  nature  of  soil, 
shelter  from  wind  or  exposure,  must  be  taken  into  account 
in  determining  where  and  what  to  plant.  It  is  probable 
that  the  proportion  of  any  gathering  ground  that  can  be 
planted  with  advantage  will  be  found  to  vary  from  10  to 
70  per  cent  of  the  total.  It  is  well  known  that  on  sites 
above  a  certain  altitude,  varying  with  the  latitude  and  with 
the  exposure  to  the  prevailing  winds,  and  on  undrained  peat 
soil  at  any  altitude,  planting  trees  is  always  unprofitable 
and  often  impossible.  Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  laid 
down  that  on  most  catchment  areas  which  attain  over  1000 
feet  elevation,  a  combination  of  grazing  and  forestry  must  be 
resorted  to.  Only  the  lower  zone  and  the  sites  with  favour- 
able soil  are  suitable  for  planting.  The  arguments  for 
afforestation  are  cumulative.  In  an  area  planted  with  trees 
the  water  is  conserved  to  a  considerable  extent.  When 
heavy  rain  occurs,  the  run-off  water  is  much  lessened,  as  the 
rain,  as  fast  as  it  falls,  is  absorbed  and  stored  by  the  deep 
humus  layer  on  the  floor  of  the  forest.  A  larger  percentage 
of  rain  will  reach  the  reservoirs  from  an  area  that  has 
been  afforested.  The  quality  of  the  water  will  also  be 
superior,  as  the  soil  on  the  hill  slopes  will  be  held  together 
by  the  roots  of  the  trees,  and  the  destructive  effects  of 
heavy  rains,  in  carrying  down  masses  of  clay  and  stones, 
will  be  prevented.  Flood  waters  will  also  diminish  to  a 
great  extent,  and,  in  consequence,  the  reservoirs  will  not  be 


76  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

silted  up.  At  present,  on  our  treeless  catchment  areas,  as 
Mr.  Margerison  (6)  pointed  out,  "  the  heads  of  great  reser- 
voirs are  being  very  seriously  and  rapidly  silted  up,  and 
some  day  they  will  cost  an  enormous  sum  for  cleaning  out. 
Where  is  the  silt  to  be  deposited  so  that  it  is  not  again 
quickly  washed  back  ?  And  what  are  those  corporations  to 
do  with  it  who  do  not  own  the  adjoining  freeholds  ?  Herein 
afforestation  will  prove  beneficial.  Plantations  will  prevent, 
or  greatly  minimise,  silt-laden  surface-water  rushes  by  block- 
ing them  and  by  promoting  percolation  and  filtration."  It 
has  been  objected  that  wooded  catchment  areas  may  pollute 
the  water  supply  on  account  of  the  enormous  masses  of  dead 
leaves  which  decay  on  the  watersheds,  or  are  blown  about 
and  carried  down  by  streams  to  rot  in  the  reservoirs.  The 
humus  in  the  forest  is,  however,  antagonistic  to  pathogenic 
bacteria,  and  the  decayed  leaves  themselves  are  absolutely 
innocuous.  In  order  to  prevent  the  leaves  being  blown 
into  the  reservoir,  a  band  of  ground  next  the  water  may  be 
planted  with  gorse  and  other  small-leaved  shrubs,  which 
form  traps  for  the  leaves  of  the  trees.  A  narrow  belt  of 
spruce  trees,  which  have  dense,  small,  evergreen  leaves,  is  a 
more  efficient  screen  for  this  purpose.  Only  a  small  part  of 
the  foliage  of  the  spruce  is  shed  annually,  namely,  the  leaves 
on  the  oldest  and  innermost  parts  of  the  branches.  These 
leaves,  as  they  are  shed,  fall  on  the  ground  beneath  and 
are  not  blown  to  a  distance.  The  falling  leaves  of  oak, 
beech,  ash,  and  other  broad-leaved  trees  are  blown  to  con- 
siderable distances  by  the  wind,  and,  in  the  absence  of  a 
screen  of  spruce,  may  constitute  somewhat  objectionable 
litter  in  the  water  of  the  reservoir. 

To  sum  up,  the  effect  of  trees  on  the  yield  and  quantity 
of  the  water  supply  collected  on  upland  areas  cannot  be 
otherwise  than  beneficial.  In  the  U.S.  Year -Book  of 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1902,  it  is  laid  down  :  "  A  forest 
furnishes  the  best  possible  cover  for  watersheds  of  storage 
reservoirs.  For  this  reason  fully  as  much  as  the  financial 
one,  several  water  companies  are  planting  extensively  in  the 
Eastern  States,  especially  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut." 


AFFORESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AREAS    77 

Newark  (New  Jersey)  has  adopted  the  policy  of  buying 
its  water  catchment  area,  with  remarkable  results,  according 
to  the  engineer,  Mr.  11.  Sherrerd.  Of  the  total  area  of  the 
watershed — 64  square  miles — Newark  City  now  owns  43 
square  miles,  and  the  population  on  the  watershed  has  been 
reduced  from  35  or  40  per  square  mile  to  16  per  square 
mile.  Other  measures  taken  have  been  demolition  of 
houses,  locking  lavatories  of  trains  in  transit  through  the 
watershed,  and  patrol  inspection.  The  bacteria  per  cubic 
cm.  of  water  diminished  from  1100  in  1902  to  690  in 
1910  and  510  in  1915.  The  number  of  typhoid  cases 
also  decreased  rapidly.  In  1900,  when  93  per  cent  of 
the  watershed  was  privately  owned,  there  were  130  cases 
of  typhoid  per  100,000  inhabitants.  In  1905,  when  80 
per  cent  of  the  watershed  was  privately  owned,  the  typhoid 
cases  sank  to  80  per  100,000.  In  1910,  with  56  per 
cent  private  ownership,  the  typhoid  rate  was  52  per 
100,000  ;  and  in  1915,  with  35  per  cent  private  owner- 
ship, the  typhoid  rate  was  only  28  per  100,000.  The 
example  of  Newark  in  obtaining  ownership  of  its  water 
catchment  area  is  likely  to  lead  to  similar  action  by  other 
towns  in  the  United  States.  Mr  Sherrerd  says  :  "  The  ulti- 
mate object  of  the  city  of  Newark  is  not  only  to  protect 
the  consumers  of  water,  but  also  to  convert  this  part  of 
New  Jersey  into  a  great  municipal  park." 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  of  interest  to  quote  a  very 
careful  statement,  made  in  Journal  of  Forestry,  December 
1917,  p.  958,  by  Mr.  Philip  T.  Coolidge,  on  the  protection 
of  water  supplies  in  the  United  States. 

"  The  acquisition  of  forest  lands  to  protect  water  supplies 
is  not  clearly  exemplified  in  any  particular  State,  although 
the  need  of  such  protection  is  one  of  the  arguments  most 
frequently  urged  as  a  reason  for  public  ownership.  It  is  a 
fact  that  both  municipal  water  supply  corporations  and 
municipalities  themselves  have  generally  found  that  actual 
ownership  rather  than  regulation  is  necessary  to  prevent 
contamination  of  water  supplies  used  for  domestic  purposes. 
It  has  been  found  that  satisfactory  policing  of  the  water- 


78  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

sheds  which  supply  potable  waters  can  be  secured  only 
under  direct  ownership  by  the  public  or  private  interest 
which  is  vitally  concerned.  The  obvious  fact  has  also  been 
found  to  be  true  that  woodland  rather  than  farm  land  or 
pasture  affords  the  most  effective  safeguard  against  discolora- 
tion of  water  by  eroded  soil  particles  and  against  con- 
tamination by  the  germs  of  contagious  diseases.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  on  lands  owned  by  water  supply 
corporations,  both  public  and  private,  intensive  and  very 
interesting  sylvicultural  measures  have  proven  practical, 
because  the  project  of  forest  production  is  free  of  any  debit 
for  the  value  of  the  land,  that  value  being  charged  against 
the  primary  purpose  for  which  the  land  is  owned,  namely, 
water  production.  As  with  lands  needed  for  purposes  of 
recreation,  public  acquisition  of  lands  actually  required  to 
protect  waters  used  for  domestic  purposes  is  desirable.  In 
every  case,  however,  the  cause  of  sound  democratic  govern- 
ment demands  that  the  necessity  for  the  purchases  be 
accurately  determined  and  clearly  understood  by  the  body 
politic." 

The  aggregate  amount  of  land  in  the  water  catchment 
areas  all  over  this  country  is  immense.  Parry,  in  1903, 
estimated  the  total  area  of  the  gathering  grounds  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  from  which  supplies  are  collected  for 
waterworks  purposes  to  be  almost  576,000  acres,  irre- 
spective of  the  watersheds  contributing  to  rivers  from 
which  supplies  are  taken  by  pumping.  These  gathering 
grounds  are  either  owned  already,  or  should  be  purchased 
compulsorily  by  the  corporations  deriving  their  water 
supplies  from  them.  Probably  100,000  to  200,000  acres 
could  be  afforested  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  State. 
I  need  not  enter  here  into  the  arguments  for  establishing  a 
timber  reserve  in  the  country.  These  arguments  have 
convinced  all  who  have  studied  the  subject,  whether 
foresters,  landowners,  officials,  or  economists.  The  main 
difficulty  of  afforestation  on  a  large  scale  in  England  lies  in 
the  necessity  for  the  acquisition  of  the  land  by  some 
corporation   or    State  authority,   who   would   be  bound  to 


AFFORESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AREAS    79 

carry  out  the  work  on  the  only  lines  that  would  ensure 
success,  namely,  the  planting  to  be  spread  over  a  term  of 
years,  to  be  uninterrupted,  and  to  be  carried  out  in  large 
blocks,  in  no  case  of  less  than  500  acres  each.  It  will  be 
difficult  to  induce  private  landowners  to  undertake,  out  of 
their  diminished  incomes,  afforestation  schemes  on  the  large 
and  continuous  scale  that  is  essential  to  success. 

In  the  case  of  water  catchment  areas  belonging  to 
corporations,  the  question  of  continuous  ownership  is 
solved  ;  and  the  agreement  entered  into  on  1 8th  August 
1914  by  the  Liverpool  Corporation  with  the  Development 
Commissioners  is  a  workable  financial  scheme  that  can  be 
adopted  generally.  The  Treasury  provides  the  money 
necessary  for  planting,  while  the  Corporation  gives  the  land 
and  pays  the  recurring  annual  expenses  of  management  and 
taxes.  In  this  partnership  the  produce  of  the  forest  will 
be  ultimately  divided  between  the  two  parties  in  the  pro- 
portion of  the  capital  invested  by  each.  In  this  way  the 
profit  or  loss  accruing  from  the  plantation  will  be  fairly 
shared  between  the  State  and  the  Corporation.  Afforesta- 
tion should  be  imposed  as  a  necessary  duty  on  all  the  water 
authorities  who  obtain  their  supply  from  gathering  grounds  ; 
in  other  words,  each  corporation  ought  to  be  compelled  to 
carry  out  a  planting  scheme  as  soon  as  the  Government 
shall  issue  a  loan  for  the  initial  expenses  of  planting.  The 
Forestry  Board,  that  we  hope  to  see  established  on  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  would  prepare  a  working  plan  in  each 
case,  which  ought  to  be  systematically  carried  out,  careful 
records  being  made  of  expenses  and  receipts. 

Since  this  was  written  the  Forestry  Sub-Committee  of 
the  Reconstruction  Committee  have  issued  their  Report,  and 
have  made  a  very  definite  pronouncement  concerning  the 
areas  from  which  water  supplies  are  collected  by  local 
authorities.  "  We  consider  it  should  be  an  invariable  rule 
that  on  catchment  areas  all  land  which  will  produce  a  crop 
of  marketable  timber  should  be  afforested.  Many  of  the 
corporations  are  still  engaged  in  meeting  the  capital  outlay 
which  their  water  supply  systems  necessitated,  and  for  that 


80  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

reason  are  unwilling  to  place  further  burdens  on  the  present 
for  the  benefit  of  future  generations.  We  have  little  doubt 
that  when  the  necessity  of  increasing  our  timber  supplies 
has  been  explained  to  local  authorities,  much  greater  activity 
in  systematic  planting  will  be  displayed,  but  in  cases  where 
they  are  still  unwilling  or  unable  to  plant  without  assistance, 
local  authorities  should  be  eligible  to  receive  all  or  any  of 
the  forms  of  assistance  to  which  we  refer."  Two  methods 
of  assisting  local  authorities  in  municipal  afforestation  are 
then  proposed  : 

(1)  Proceeds-sharing. — "The  State  would  provide  the 
cost  of  planting  and  general  supervision,  and  would  lay 
down  the  working  plan ;  the  landowner  (local  authority) 
would  provide  the  land  and  the  cost  of  local  management. 
Accounts  would  be  kept  of  the  annual  contributions  made 
by  each  party,  and  on  the  basis  of  these,  reckoned  up  at 
compound  interest,  the  annual  receipts  would  be  divided. 
This  method  seems  rather  complicated,  as  the  ratio  deter- 
mining the  division  of  proceeds  would  vary  from  year  to 
year,  but  no  doubt  a  simple  method  of  crediting  proceeds 
during  the  early  years  and  arriving  at  a  fair  average  ratio 
as  the  basis  of  calculation  when  the  woods  become  fully 
productive  could  be  mutually  agreed  upon." 

(2)  Assistance  hy  Grants. — Grants  up  to  £2  per  acre 
towards  the  cost  of  planting  conifers  and  up  to  £4  per  acre 
towards  the  cost  of  planting  hard  woods  are  recommended, 
the  following  conditions  being  imposed :  First,  the  area  to 
be  planted  and  the  working  plan  must  be  approved  by  the 
Forest  Authority  and  adhered  to.  Secondly,  a  minimum 
area  to  be  planted  at  a  minimum  rate  per  annum,  namely, 
at  least  100  acres  to  be  afforested  and  at  least  10  acres 
planted  up  each  year.  Thirdly,  the  Forest  Authority  must 
be  satisfied  that  the  planting  and  subsequent  care  of  the 
trees  will  be  under  adequately  skilled  management. 
Fourthly,  the  grant  to  be  refunded  with  interest  if  the 
preceding  conditions  are  not  fulfilled. 

Mr.  Parry,  at  a  meeting  of  tlie  British  Waterworks 
Association,  4th  October  1918,  preferred,  under   the  con- 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AKEAS    81 

ditions  suggested,  the  method  of  assistance  by  grants,  but 
was  of  opinion  that  the  amount  of  grant  per  acre  should  be 
higher.  He  considered  the  proceeds-sharing  scheme  pro- 
posed in  the  Eeport  to  be  less  favourable  than  the  Liverpool 
agreement  referred  to  above,  and  to  be  surrounded  by  con- 
ditions which  he  would  not  advise  any  local  authority  to 
accept.  In  his  opinion  it  would  be  a  partnership  with  all 
the  power  and  authority  in  the  hands  of  one  partner. 
Preferably  the  Forest  Authority  should  be  allowed  to  take 
over  the  whole  business  and  pay  the  local  authority  a  fair 
rent  for  the  use  of  the  land. 

Various  subsidiary  arguments  may  be  adduced  in  favour 
of  planting  these  gathering  grounds.  Water  power  will  be 
available,  by  which  the  successful  working  of  the  forest  may 
be  greatly  helped.  Saw-mills  and  wood-working  machinery, 
driven  directly  by  water  power  or  by  electric  motors,  would 
contribute  to  the  profitable  utilisation  of  the  trees  by  the 
conversion  of  the  timber  to  marketable  sizes  and  by  the 
production  of  wood  pulp,  matches,  wooden  implements,  and 
other  articles.  At  the  end  of  the  war,  when  large  numbers 
of  soldiers  will  be  disbanded,  immediate  work  would  be 
found  for  men  accustomed  to  rural  labour  if  Corporations 
were  called  upon  to  begin  at  once  the  afforestation  of  their 
water  catchment  areas.  Planting  work  is  carried  out  in 
winter,  when  labour  is  less  needed  in  building  and  other 
trades.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  intention  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  proceed  at  once  with  large  afforestation  schemes 
as  soon  as  peace  is  declared ;  but  the  acquisition  of  the 
necessary  land  in  sufficiently  large  blocks  from  private 
owners  will  take  up  much  time  in  preliminary  surveys 
and  negotiations.  No  scheme  sufficiently  attractive  to 
induce  private  landowners  to  co-operate  vigorously  in  the 
planting  of  large  tracts  has  yet  been  devised.  In  the  case 
of  land  owned  by  Corporations  there  need  arise  no  diffi- 
culty in  starting  this  useful  national  work  and  establishing 
as  soon  as  possible  a  timber  reserve  in  these  islands. 

Mr.  George  Baxter,  C.E.,  says  that  the  main  difficulty  at 
present  in  Scotland  is  the  want  of  powers  by  the  Corporations 

G 


82  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

to  acquire  the  land  on  their  water  catchment  areas  at  a  fair 
value.  The  Lintrathen  watershed,  from  which  Dundee  takes 
most  of  its  water  supply,  is  22,000  acres  in  extent ;  but  only 
1000  acres  have  been  purchased  by  the  Dundee  Water 
Commissioners,  and  of  this  200  acres  have  been  success- 
fully planted.  As  8700  acres  in  the  gathering  ground  are 
below  1000  feet  elevation,  it  is  probable  that  a  large  forest 
might  be  profitably  created  at  Lintrathen.  The  great  difficulty 
lies  in  the  exorbitant  price  that  has  been  paid  by  Corpora- 
tions for  land  compulsorily  acquired.  Mr.  Baxter  (7)  urges 
that  "  the  burden  of  an  extensive  afforestation  scheme  can 
only  be  equitably  adjusted  if  State-aided.  Government 
aid  need  not  necessarily  be  wholly  in  the  shape  of  direct 
financial  assistance.  Let  us  have  a  compulsory  system 
of  land  purchase  for  waterworks  purposes  or  afforestation 
purposes  by  local  authorities,  under  which  such  land  may 
be  obtained  at  something  like  its  market  value  instead 
of  the  present  system,  through  the  operation  of  which 
communities  are  called  upon  to  pay  such  high  prices." 

The  exorbitant  prices  paid  by  municipalities  to  land- 
owners for  waterworks  sites  and  the  like  seem  to  be  in 
many  cases  grossly  unfair.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  heavy 
costs  of  arbitration,  and  in  part  to  the  excessive  sums 
awarded  by  arbiters  under  what  Mr.  James  Watson  (8) 
calls  that  intangible  excrescence  to  the  Land  Clauses 
Consolidation  Act  known  as  'special  adaptability.'  In 
England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  "  the  claims  set  up  under 
this  head  for  land  good,  bad,  or  indifferent  (if  it  had  to  be 
acquired  '  under  statutory  powers  for  waterworks)  were 
such  that  land  instantly  appreciated  to  ten  or  twenty 
times  its  agricultural  value  if  needed  for  waterworks 
on  the  grounds  of  the  ill-defined  pleas  of  '  special 
adaptability.' " 

Value  for  '  special  adaptability  '  seems  to  have  been  first 
claimed  in  the  arbitration  between  the  Countess  Ossalinski 
and  the  Manchester  Corporation  in  regard  to  land  around 
Thirlmere.  The  award  which  was  given,  being  about  120 
years'  purchase  on  the  rental  of  the  land  and  residence,  was 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AREAS    83 

taken  on  appeal  before  the  High  Court.  The  Judges  held 
that  "  the  arbitrator  in  his  award  had  justly  taken  into 
account  the  enhanced  value  of  the  land  by  reason  of  the 
water  that  might  be  collected,  diverted,  and  impounded  upon 
it,  and  also  by  reason  of  its  natural  and  peculiar  adaptation 
for  the  construction  of  a  reservoir." 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  remarkable  awards 
which  have  been  based  upon  the  decision  in  this  case : 

The  Swansea  Corporation  took,  under  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment, 152  acres  for  a  reservoir  out  of  a  sheep  farm  of 
5000  acres,  which  had  been  recently  bought  at  auction 
for  £11,500.  The  award  made  for  special  adaptability 
(£20  per  acre),  in  respect  of  the  152  acres  and  for  'ease- 
ments,' was  £12,370,  being  more  than  the  cost  of  the 
whole  farm  of  5000  acres  sold  by  auction  as  an  ordinary 
hill  farm. 

Two  acres  of  moorland  were  acquired  by  the  Middle 
Ward  District  Committee  of  Lanarkshire  for  the  Shotts 
Eeservoir.  The  land  was  valued  by  a  competent  valuator 
at  £326.  An  award  was  made  of  £465,  but  the  Corporation 
were  obliged  to  pay  in  addition  £28  as  interest  and  £219 
for  the  costs  of  arbitration,  making  £712  in  all — in  other 
words,  more  than  twice  as  much  as  the  just  value  of  the 
land. 

The  Glasgow  Corporation,  when  raising  the  level  of  Loch 
Arklet,  were  compelled  to  pay  £19,115  in  respect  of  381 
acres  of  rough  heather  moorland,  of  which  they  only  acquired 
freehold  of  17  acres.  In  addition  to  this  sum,  the  Corpora- 
tion had  to  pay  £4700  for  legal  expenses,  £3500  for  new 
roads,  etc.,  and  £4700  for  the  right  to  store  water,  etc.,  or 
£31,900  in  all  This  seems  monstrous,  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  381  acres  were  practically  of  little  or  no  value, 
being  part  of  11,500  acres  of  hill  pasture,  the  gross  rent 
of  which  was  £700,  worth  then  at  25  years'  purchase  only 
£17,500.  The  real  value  of  the  381  acres  would  seem  to 
have  been  less  than  £600,  yet  £31,900  was  extorted. 

The  Eoyal  Commission  (9)  on  Housing  in  Scotland,  after 
hearing  evidence  on  this  question,  came  to  two  clear  and 


84  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

definite  conclusions ;  first,  that  the  traditions  and  customs 
which  have  in  the  past  surrounded  arbitrations  have  resulted 
in  excessive  awards  and  excessive  costs  of  arbitration ;  and 
second,  that  these  excessive  awards  and  costs  have  paralysed 
the  efforts  of  local  authorities  in  their  attempts  to  administer 
Acts  framed  in  the  interests  of  public  health  and  otherwise 
for  the  general  good. 

The  first  report  of  the  Committee  appointed  by  the 
Ministry  of  Reconstruction  to  deal  with  the  law  and 
practice  relating  to  the  acquisition  and  valuation  of  land 
for  public  purposes  was  published  as  Blue  Book,  Cd.  8998,  in 
January  1918.  Its  main  recommendations  are  concerned 
with  the  simplification  of  the  procedure  for  compulsory 
acquisition  of  land.  The  Committee  acknowledge  that 
"  the  costs  of  procedure  under  the  Land  Clauses  Acts  are 
not  infrequently  so  great  as  to  neutralise  financially  the 
advantage  of  possessing  such  powers,"  and  they  instance 
cases  of  exorbitant  prices  demanded  for  land  from  the 
Admiralty  and  other  Government  Departments.  "  Under 
the  present  system,  public  authorities  may  well  prefer  to 
pay  any  figure  up  to  double  the  fair  value  of  the  land 
rather  than  face  the  delays  and  expenses  of  compulsory 
acquisition."  The  valuation  of  land  for  public  purposes  is 
fully  dealt  with  in  the  second  report  by  this  Committee. 

The  history  of  the  afforestation  of  the  various  catchment 
areas  throughout  the  country  shows  in  how  fitful  a  manner 
and  on  how  small  a  scale  this  important  civic  and  national 
work  has  been  carried  out  in  past  years.  This  furnishes 
a  strong  argument  for  compulsion  on  the  lines  suggested 
above.  Mr.  Parry  writes  to  me :  "  I  attach  great  import- 
ance to  the  agreement  between  the  Government  and  the 
Liverpool  Corporation,  because  it  ensures  the  steady  working 
out  of  a  planting  scheme  over  a  large  area  under  permanent 
conditions  of  supervision  and  progress.  Any  scheme  under- 
taken by  a  Municipal  Corporation,  unaided  and  uncontrolled, 
is  liable  to  interruption  through  the  changes  constantly 
taking  place  in  the  composition  of  Councils ;  and  there  is 
also  considerable  danger  of  mismanagement." 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    85 

The  Departmental  Committee  on  British  Forestry,  which 
reported  in  1902,  drew  the  attention  of  local  authorities, 
deriving  their  water  supplies  from  gathering  grounds  owned 
by  them,  to  the  advantage  and  profits  to  be  derived  from 
planting  the  catchment  areas  with  trees,  not  only  to 
contribute  to  the  retention  of  the  rain  and  assist  in 
regulating  the  water  supply,  but  to  help  to  purify  the 
water  and  at  the  same  time  yield  a  regular  income  on  the 
capital  expended.  In  connection  with  this  report  the  Local 
Government  Board  obtained  a  return  in  1903,  showing 
which  of  the  local  authorities  owning  waterworks  had 
acquired  the  freehold  or  long  leasehold  of  the  catchment 
areas  from  which  their  water  supplies  were  derived.  This 
return,  which  was  not  published,  showed  that  at  that  time 
5  joint  boards  and  74  town  and  district  councils  in  England 
and  Wales  owned  or  had  a  long  lease  of  a  part  or  all  of 
their  gathering  grounds  (10). 

The  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  xi.  468 
(November  1904),  in  an  article  on  this  subject,  points 
out  that  such  catchment  areas  must  "  be  placed  under  the 
control  of  a  competent  forester,  and  inasmuch  as  they  will 
be  under  corporate  control,  and  less  subject  to  change  of 
management  than  land  owned  by  private  individuals,  there 
is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  also  ultimately  serve  as 
demonstration  forests  and  be  available  for  the  instruction 
of  students.  For  example,  the  catchment  areas  of  Liverpool 
and  Birmingham  waterworks  situated '  in  Wales,  within 
reach  of  University  Colleges  possessing  agricultural  depart- 
ments, could,  with  the  consent  of  the  Corporations  concerned, 
be  used  for  these  purposes ;  and  a  similar  arrangement 
might  be  made  with  regard  to  certain  areas  in  Yorkshire 
within  reach  of  the  University  of  Leeds." 

In  the  same  Jourrml  tables  were  published  showing 
the  acreage  and  other  particulars  of  the  gathering  grounds 
in  Great  Britain,  which  in  1904  were  held  as  freehold 
or  on  long  lease  by  local  authorities.  These  tables,  based 
on  returns  made  in  that  year  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
by  the  various  municipalities,  were  confessedly  incomplete. 


86 


FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 


and  in  certain  cases  inaccurate.  Returns  from  only  47 
authorities  were  given.  Important  areas,  such  as  the 
Liverpool  Corporation's  catchment  area  of  10,000  acres  at 
Rivington,  were  omitted.  The  figures  excluded  land  subject 
to  common  rights,  small  areas  of  freehold,  and  certain  areas 
which  the  local  authorities  reported  as  being  too  exposed 
for  planting.  Nevertheless,  the  fact  was  disclosed  that 
over  100,000  acres  of  catchment  areas  were  owned  or  held 
on  long  lease  by  local  authorities.  The  tables  summarised 
indicated  for  1904  : 


Country. 

No.  of 
Authorities. 

Mountain 

and  Heath 

Land. 

Woodlands. 

Cultivated. 

Total. 

England 
Wales  . 
Scotland 

25 

9 

13 

Acres. 
78,550 

6,250 
10,950 

Acres. 

1,850 

100 

50 

Acres. 
1,650 

1,300 

Acres. 

82,050 

6,350 

12,300 

Total    . 

47 

95,750 

2,000 

2,950 

100,700 

In  the  Final  Report  of  the  Reconstruction  Forestry 
Sub-Committee  (Cd.  8881  of  1918,  p.  93)  it  is  stated 
that  the  Glasgow  Corporation's  areas  at  Loch  Katrine  and 
Gorbals  should  be  added  to  the  list  as  being  owned  by 
the  local  authority.  This  is  incorrect,  as  the  ownership 
of  these  areas  still  remains  in  private  hands,  and  the  Glasgow 
Corporation  have  no  rights  to  make  plantations  upon  them. 

The  Board  of  Agriculture  again,  in  1909,  made  an 
inquiry  concerning  the  amount  of  planting  that  had  since 
been  carried  out.  The  result  of  this  inquiry  showed  (11) 
that  in  the  majority  of  cases,  even  where  local  authorities 
were  in  possession  of  the  freehold  or  had  long  leases  of 
their  catchment  areas,  little  progress  had  as  yet  been  made. 
In  a  few  cases,  on  the  other  hand,  the  work  had  been 
taken  up  seriously,  and  planting  was  being  done  on  a 
systematic  plan.  Reports  received  from  fourteen  local 
authorities  indicated  that  altogether  some  2200  acres  had 
been  planted,  and  that  schemes  were  on  foot  for  planting 
a  similar  area  during  the  ensuing  five  years.      Leeds,  Liver- 


AFFOKESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    87 

pool,  Birmingham,  Manchester,  and  Torquay  had  planted 
on  a  considerable  scale ;  while  Oldham,  Llandudno,  Bolton, 
Darwen,  Bury,  Cardiff,  Derwent  River  Valley  Board,  and 
Plymouth  had  each  planted  a  few  acres.  It  was  evident 
that  with  the  exception  of  three  or  four  of  the  larger 
municipalities  the  matter  had  been  half-heartedly  taken 
up.  The  cost  of  the  work  had  also  been  very  high  in 
most  cases,  and  there  were  indications  that  with  one  or 
two  exceptions  it  had  been  indifferently  carried  out.  Some 
of  the  planting  had  been  hastily  undertaken  with  a 
view  to  finding  employment  for  men  thrown  out  of 
work  during  the  trade  depression  of  the  years  1908  and 
1909,  and  generally  without  proper  advice  or  expert  super- 
vision. 

The  Reconstruction  Report  says  that  "  complete  figures 
are  not  available  of  the  total  area  of  land  held  by  Local 
Authorities  in  the  catchment  areas  of  their  water  supplies. 
The  total  area  is  considerable,  and,  moreover,  is  increasing 
steadily.  It  is  not  possible  to  say  definitely  in  the  absence 
of  a  survey  what  proportion  of  the  total  area  held  by  Local 
Authorities  is  afforestable.  A  survey  made  by  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  of  the  Birmingham  Corporation's  land  in 
Wales  disclosed  6000  acres  of  suitable  land.  After  making 
deductions  for  altitude  and  exposure,  unsuitable  soil,  etc., 
it  would  probably  be  found  that  the  total  acreage  of  water 
catchment  areas  fit  for  afforestation  in  Great  Britain  is  not 
less  than  50,000  acres,  and  may  be  considerably  more." 

This  estimate  is  a  moderate  one;  more  likely  80,000 
acres  of  municipally  owned  lands  are  available  for  planting 
in  the  British  Isles.  How  important  these  areas  are  in 
the  aggregate  will  be  shown  in  the  three  concluding  chapters 
of  this  book,  where  detailed  descriptions  are  given  in 
geographical  order  of  nearly  all  the  gathering  grounds  of 
water  supplies  in  England  and  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 
The  total  extent  in  1918  of  the  gathering  grounds  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  summarised  from  the  information 
given  in  these  three  chapters,  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : 


rOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 


Country. 

Total  Extent  of 
Gathering  Grounds. 

Extent  owned  by 
Local  Authorities. 

Local 
Authorities. 

Companies, 

Acres. 

Local 
Authorities. 

Acres. 

England  and  "Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

127 

78 
46 

14 

"i* 

591,336 

243,624 

93,835 

64  t 

16 

9 

140,305 
27,829 
15,282 

Total    . 

251 

15 

928,795 

89  t 

183,416 

*  Water  supply  owned  by  private  landowner. 
t  One  Company  is  included  in  these  totals. 

In  conclusion  it  is  encouraging  to  know  that  the  few 
Corporations  who  have  been  in  earnest  are  satisfied  with 
the  results  of  their  afforestation  schemes.  Liverpool,  Leeds, 
Birmingham,  and  Manchester  have  all  done  notable  work, 
an  account  of  which  may  fittingly  conclude  the  present 
chapter. 

Liverpool. — The  most  important  work  of  this  kind  is 
probably  the  systematic  afforestation  that  has  been  carried 
out  during  recent  years  by  the  Liverpool  Corporation  on 
their  catchment  areas  at  Vyrnwy  and  Eivington  (12). 

The  Vyrnwy  gathering  ground  (13),  with  a  total  area 
of  22,742  acres,  is  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Eiver 
Vyrnwy,  near  its  source  in  Montgomeryshire,  and  ranges  in 
elevation  from  780  to  2000  feet,  with  an  average  annual 
rainfall  of  70  inches.  The  artificial  reservoir,  known  as 
Lake  Vyrnwy,  covers  1121  acres,  and  three  catchment 
areas  drain  into  it,  namely,  the  Eiver  Vyrnwy  area,  18,000 
acres,  the  Cownwy  stream  area,  3092  acres,  and  the 
Marchnant  stream  area,  1650  acres,  making  a  total  of 
22,742  acres,  practically  all  of  which  has  now  been 
acquired  by  the  Liverpool  Corporation ;  but  there  are  on 
the  Vyrnwy  area  some  disputed  boundaries  near  the  tops 
of  the  watershed  lines  not  yet  settled.  In  the  Cownwy  and 
Marchnant  areas  the  Corporation  have,  to  suit  the  con- 
venience of  the  vendor,  taken  over  some  farms,  which 
extend   beyond   the   catchment  areas.      The  land,  in  great 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AKEAS    89 

part  let  to  tenants,  is  mostly  occupied  by  sheep,  but  the 
farms  are  gradually  being  acquired  as  the  tenancies  expire ; 
and  ultimately  there  will  be  no  houses  on  the  watershed, 
and  nothing  but  forest  around  the  lake  and  rivers. 

When  the  Corporation  bought  the  land,  there  were 
170  acres  of  old  woods  on  the  Vyrnwy  area.  Planting 
operations  on  commercial  principles  were  commenced  in 
1897,  in  accordance  with  a  report  and  plan  made  by 
Prof  W.  Pi.  Fisher  in  the  preceding  year.  By  April  1903 
there  were  over  600  acres  of  old  and  new  plantations.  A 
saw-mill  was  erected,  and  nurseries  were  established,  which 
enabled  the  subsequent  planting  to  be  carried  out  at  a  more 
rapid  rate.  The  total  area  of  the  plantations  made  up  to 
October  1918  was  1383  acres,  situated  between  825  and 
1500  feet  elevation,  no  less  than  3,600,000  young  trees 
having  been  employed,  all  of  which  are  growing  splendidly. 
The  main  species  used  have  been  larch,  Douglas  fir,  spruce, 
silver  fir,  Scots  pine,  Corsican  pine,  and  beech,  with  some 
ash,  sycamore,  oak,  and  alder.  The  larch  and  Douglas  fir 
show  remarkable  vigour  of  growth  at  the  present  time ; 
and  ultimately  there  will  be  a  magnificent  forest  of  5000 
acres  around  Lake  Vyrnwy. 

On  18  th  August  1914  an  agreement  was  come  to 
between  the  Treasury  and  the  Corporation,  on  lines  laid 
down  by  the  Development  Commissioners,  for  the  afforesta- 
tion of  5000  acres  on  the  Vyrnwy  area.  The  Treasury 
were  to  advance  to  the  Corporation  from  the  Development 
Fund  on  loan  £5  per  acre,  as  required  for  planting,  up  to 
a  limit  of  £25,000  ;  while  the  Corporation  were  to  pay  to 
the  Development  Fund  the  price  of  one-half  of  the  produce 
utilised  or  sold  from  the  area  afforested  by  means  of  the 
loan,  such  payment  to  be  made  as  and  when  the  produce  is 
utilised  or  sold. 

Mr.  Parry,  in  a  paper  read  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
British  Waterworks  Association,  4th  October  1918,  says: 

"  Under  the  agreement,  as  ultimately  settled,  the 
Corporation  have  undertaken  to  plant  an  area  of  4000  acres 
around  Lake  Vyrnwy,  in  blocks  of  approximately  200  acres 


AFFOKESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AREAS    91 

each  year,  thus  extending  the  completion  of  the  scheme 
over  a  period  of  twenty  years.  A  working  plan  was 
prepared  and  approved  of  by  Government  on  which  these 
twenty  sections  are  marked  out,  but  there  is  provision  for 
deviations  being  made  if  required  by  circumstances.  The 
Government  contribute  a  sum  per  acre  which  is  intended 
to  cover  approximately  the  actual  cost  of  planting.  Also 
they  contribute  a  specified  allowance  per  acre  in  respect  of 
maintenance.  Payment  is  made  by  the  Treasury  in 
advance  at  the  beginning  of  each  planting  season,  after 
inspection  and  approval  of  the  previous  year's  planting  by 
an  expert  from  the  Forestry  Department.  In  consideration 
of  these  advances,  the  Corporation  have  to  pay  to  the 
Treasury  a  sum  equal  to  one-half  of  the  net  value  of  all 
timber,  saplings,  thinnings,  and  other  products  resulting 
from  the  joint  operations.  There  is  also  an  arbitration 
clause  in  the  event  of  differences  arising  between  the 
Corporation  and  the  Board  of  Agriculture  or  Treasury. 
Briefly,  the  arrangement  is,  that  the  Corporation  provide 
the  land,  plant  the  trees,  and  sell  the  products.  The 
Government  pay,  in  advance,  the  cost  of  planting.  The 
profits  are  divided  equally  between  the  two  parties." 

Mr.  Parry,  to  whom  I  am  much  indebted  for  information 
about  the  Liverpool  catchment  areas,  attaches  "  great  im- 
portance to  the  agreement  between  the  Government  and 
the  Corporation,  chiefly  because  it  ensures  the  working  ou.t 
of  a  planting  scheme  over  a  large  area.  Any  scheme 
undertaken  by  a  Municipal  Corporation,  unaided  and 
uncontrolled,  is  liable  to  interruption  through  the  changes 
constantly  taking  place  in  the  composition  of  Councils ;  and 
there  is  also  considerable  danger  of  mismanagement." 

The  adoption  of  this  scheme  involved  the  taking  in 
hand,  during  twenty  years,  of  9  farms  on  the  Vyrnwy  area, 
from  which  the  Corporation  now  derive  a  gross  rental  of 
£583,  and  a  net  rental  (allowing  for  repairs)  of  £498. 
These  farms  cover  9645  acres,  including  grouse  moors  also 
let  for  sporting,  not  suitable  for  planting.  The  value  of 
the  sporting  would  be  considerably  increased  by  the  removal 


92  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

of  the  sheep ;  and  the  closing  of  the  farmsteads  would 
remove  an  objectionable  source  of  pollution.  Some  portions 
of  the  Marchnant  area,  recently  purchased,  would  also  be 
included  in  the  planting  area.  There  are  six  farmsteads  on 
the  Marchnant  area,  three  of  which  have  been  strongly 
condemned  by  the  Medical  Officer  of  Health  in  consequence 
of  the  pollutions  caused  by  their  proximity  to  important 
streams. 

Mr.  Parry,  in  the  paper  quoted  above,  states :  "  If  it 
had  not  been  for  the  war,  the  total  area  planted  under  the 
Government  scheme  would  have  been  1000  acres,  represent- 
ing about  2,250,000  trees.  The  occurrence  of  the  war, 
with  the  resulting  shortage  of  labour  and  cost  of  fencing 
materials,  has,  however,  made  it  impossible  to  carry  out  the 
full  intention  of  the  agreement,  and,  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  the  number  of  acres  actually 
planted  has  been  little  more  than  one-half  the  area  marked 
on  the  plan.  During  the  years  1897—1913,  the  Corpora- 
tion planted  altogether  2,500,000  trees  on  884  acres. 
The  number  of  trees  planted  to  date  (October  1918)  under 
the  partnership  agreement  with  Government  is  1,101,891, 
and  the  number  of  acres  499,  thus  making  a  grand  total  of 
3,600,000  trees  and  1383  acres." 

The  writer  visited  Lake  Vyrnwy  in  September  1918, 
and  was  much  impressed  by  the  flourishing  state  of  the 
plantations,  which  have  been  under  the  care  of  the  head 
forester,  Mr.  J.  Carsley,  for  the  last  twenty-five  years. 
Some  mature  timber  was  felled  during  the  war ;  and  the 
following  table,  based  on  diagrams  supplied  by  Mr.  E.  L. 
Eobinson  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  shows  the  comparative 
growth  of  the  various  species  in  two  of  the  older  woods. 


[Table 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    93 

Height,  Growth  of  Sample  Trees  in  Older  Woods,  Lake  Vyrnwy. 
(sh.  =  sheltered  ;  exp.  =  exposed.) 


Larch. 

Silver  Fir. 

Spruce. 

c 

¥ 

5 

O    f>' 

1 

II 

•C..O 

"^  2 

Elevation 
in  feet    . 

865 

900 

900 

900 

865 

900 

925 

875 

875 

865 

Exposure 
to  wind . 

sh. 

exp. 

sh. 

exp. 

sh. 

exp. 

exp. 

sh. 

sh. 

sh. 

Height  in  Feet  corresponding  to  Various  Ages. 


Years  of  Age. 


Spruce. 


11 


g.| 


52 


77 


Timber  Volume  (Quarter  Girth)  of  each  Sample  Tree  over 
Bark,  Cubic  Feet, 


14      12 


13 


Spruce. 


42      1 


10 


II 


16 


45 


These  measurements  show  the  great  value  of  European 
larch  and  spruce  for  the  production  of  timber  in  the 
mountains  of  Central  Wales.  Corsican  pine  does  well  at 
high  elevations ;  and  plantations  of  this  species  made  in 
1906-1907  at  1300  feet  above  sea-level  showed  an 
average  height  of  10  feet  in  1918,  with  leading  shoots  of 
the  current  season   about    1^  feet  in  length.      The  newer 


94  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

plantations  made  by  the  Corporation  indicate  that  Douglas 
fir  ought  to  bulk  largely  in  the  afforestation  of  mountain 
valleys.  Various  plots  of  Douglas  fir  showed  the  following 
growth :  At  860  feet  altitude,  an  average  tree,  2  6  years 
planted,  was  64  feet  high  by  2  feet  8  inches  in  girth;  at 
850  feet  elevation,  an  average  tree,  29  years  planted,  was 
50  feet  high  by  3  feet  4  inches;  at  840  feet  elevation, 
two  trees,  19  years  planted,  were  43  feet  by  2  feet  and  52 
feet  by  2  feet  9  inches.  At  the  high  elevation  of  1200 
feet,  growth  of  Douglas  fir  was  much  checked  by  exposure 
to  wind,  the  height,  20  years  after  planting,  being  about 
25  feet.  Sitka  spruce  has  unluckily  not  been  planted  as 
yet  in  quantity  at  Lake  Vyrnwy ;  but  there  are  three  trees 
of  this  species  growing  near  the  embankment  at  850  feet 
elevation,  which  show  remarkable  vigour  of  growth.  Planted 
35  years  ago,  they  are  70  feet  in  height,  and  average  5  feet 
8  inches  in  girth.  Near  them  are  numerous  self-sown 
seedlings,  4  to  12  inches  high,  which  show  that  natural 
regeneration  of  this  valuable  tree  may  be  looked  for,  provided 
that  rabbits  are  excluded.  Sitka  spruce  should  be  largely 
used  in  wettish  places,  and  at  high  elevations.  Japanese 
larch,  9  years  planted,  is  about  22  feet  high,  and  flourishes 
here.  Scots  pine,  planted  in  1899,  averages  only  15  feet 
high,  and  is  of  little  value  for  the  production  of  timber  in 
comparison  with  larch,  Douglas  fir,  and  Sitka  spruce. 
These  three  species  are  unquestionably  the  most  profitable 
for  the  afforestation  of  large  areas  of  mountain  land. 

The  Eivington  catchment  area,  10,000  acres  in  extent, 
was  purchased  by  the  Liverpool  Corporation  in  1902,  It 
is  situated  on  millstone  grit,  between  450  and  1498  feet 
elevation,  and  consists  mainly  of  moorland  and  hill  grazing. 
The  population  surrounding  the  area  had  been  increasing 
rapidly,  and  was  tending  also  to  increase  upon  the  watershed 
itself,  so  that  it  was  becoming  extremely  difficult  to  prevent 
the  streams  from  being  polluted,  especially  by  the  farming 
operations  of  numerous  small  holders  on  the  estate.  To 
deal  with  this  danger  effectually  the  Corporation  became 
owners  of  the  property ;  and  since  then  have  got  rid  of  a 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  95 

considerable  number  of  small  farmers,  and  greatly  reduced 
the  number  of  sheep  on  the  area,  thus  lessening  the  risk 
of  contamination  of  the  streams.  The  Corporation  also 
adopted  a  scheme  of  afforestation  in  1904,  with  the  view 
of  keeping  the  water  pure.  By  1908  about  408  acres 
had  been  planted  with  1,640,000  trees.  Smoke  arising 
from  the  large  manufacturing  towns  around  Eivington  caused 
some  difficulty,  as  certain  species  failed  to  grow  or  ceased  to 
thrive  after  a  time.  Beech  and  ash,  however,  were  a  success  ; 
sycamore  throve  moderately  ;  and  Corsican  pine  and  Douglas 
fir  did  well  in  certain  situations.      Larch  proved  a  failure. 

The  growth  of  trees  on  the  Eivington  area  has  not  been 
entirely  successful,  as  some  years  ago  a  plague  of  voles 
did  great  damage.  The  smoke  nuisance  has  gradually 
increased,  and  for  the  last  four  or  five  years  forestry 
operations  have  been  confined  to  filling  up  vacancies.  The 
total  area  of  the  plantations,  however,  amounted  on  30th 
June  1916  to  1300  acres,  situated  between  450  and 
1100  feet  elevation.  Beech,  spruce,  sycamore,  ash,  alder, 
Corsican  pine,  and  oak  were  the  main  species  planted, 
3,404,866  young  trees  being  used. 

The  Liverpool  Corporation  have  not  entered  into  any 
agreement  with  the  Government  in  regard  to  the  afforesta- 
tion of  the  Eivington  area.  The  subject  was  discussed  in 
1912,  when  a  joint  scheme  for  planting  the  Lancashire 
gathering  grounds  of  the  Liverpool  and  Bolton  Corporations 
was  proposed ;  but  the  matter  dropped. 

Manchester  owns  two  catchment  areas,  that  of  Lake 
Thirlmere  in  Cumberland,  and  the  Longdendale  Valley  in 
Cheshire  and  Derbyshire. 

The  natural  catchment  area  of  Lake  Thirlmere  is  7400 
acres,  but  water  from  a  further  area  of  3600  acres  was 
diverted  into  the  lake,  so  that  the  total  catchment  area  is 
11,000  acres,  all  owned  by  the  Manchester  Corporation. 
This  ranges  in  elevation  from  533  feet,  the  natural  level  of 
the  lake,  up  to  3118  feet,  the  summit  of  Helvellyn.  The 
geological  formation  is  Lower  Silurian,  the  rock  being  near 


96  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

the  surface.  There  is  scarcely  any  peat,  the  water  even  in 
times  of  flood  being  very  clear.  The  mountains  surrounding 
the  lake  are  very  precipitous,  and  are  used  as  sheep  pastures. 
At  present  there  are  only  two  farmsteads,  used  for  sheep 
farms,  within  the  catchment  area,  and  very  little  ploughing 
is  done ;  but  the  fells  are  still  let  as  sheep  grazing.  The 
annual  rainfall  is  heavy,  varying  in  wet  years  between  100 
inches  in  the  valley  and  137  inches  in  the  hills  on  the  west 
side,  and  in  dry  years  between  about  60  and  80  inches  in  the 
same  places.  Erom  the  almost  entire  absence  of  peat  and  the 
precipitous  and  rocky  elevation  of  the  Thirlmere  area,  the  yield 
of  water  is  largely  in  excess  of  that  obtained  from  other  water- 
sheds in  this  country.  The  lake  in  its  natural  state  covered 
328  acres,  and  had  a  normal  level  of  533  feet  above  the 
sea,  but  a  masonry  dam  constructed  across  the  outlet  has 
raised  the  level,  and  increased  the  area  to  500  acres  (14). 

When  the  Corporation  acquired  Thirlmere  (Fig.  14) 
there  were  about  283  acres  of  old  woods,  consisting  of 
sessile  oak,  ash,  beech,  and  alder,  with  scattered  larch 
plantations.  The  latter  were  splendid  in  growth,  some  of 
the  trees  attaining  100  feet  in  height  and  8  to  10  feet  in 
girth,  and  there  was  little  disease.  These  woods  were 
maintained  by  the  Waterworks  Committee,  who  started 
nurseries  and  made  new  plantations,  which  amounted  by 
the  end  of  1907  to  389  acres.  At  that  time  the  entire 
area  consisted  of  lake,  500  acres ;  farms,  1500  acres ;  fell 
(high  mountain  grazing),  5000  acres;  intake  (land  enclosed 
from  the  fell,  but  for  which  additional  rent  is  not  paid  by 
the  occupiers),  3000  acres;  old  woods  and  new  plantations, 
672  acres;  proposed  plantations,  328  acres.  Of  the  fell 
about  half,  that  on  the  east  side,  is  common  land  dependent 
on  the  farms.  The  otlier  half,  on  the  west  of  the  lake,  is 
the  absolute  property  of  the  Corporation.  Prof.  W.  R.  Fisher 
(15)  drew  up  a  working  plan  and  report  on  the  woodlands 
around  Thirlmere  in  the  beginning  of  1908.  A  trained 
forester  was  appointed,  and  regular  planting  was  taken  in 
hand,  which  has  continued  up  to  the  present  time,  the  area 
of  the   plantations  made    from   1908   till   February   1917 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    97 

being  540  acres.  There  are  thus  at  present  on  the  area 
283  acres  of  old  woods  and  929  acres  of  young  plantations, 
1212  acres  in  all.     The  plantations  have  been  successful 


Old  Woods  ^m 

New   Plantations  ^M 

Contours  ■■'■''??■■ 

Pkoposso  Plahtations  H"  onl\ 


Fig.  11. — Manchester  Corporation,  Thirlmere  Plantatior 


from  a  commercial  point  of  view,  and  have  greatly  improved 
the  beauty  of  the  landscape. 

The  plantations  are  mostly  near  the  lake,  the  newer  ones 

H 


98  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

being  on  the  intake  on  the  lower  slopes  between  the  valley 
and  the  fell,  and  in  some  places  ascend  up  to  1500  feet 
elevation.  The  reclamation  of  the  moorland  to  pasture 
would  set  free  a  larger  area  of  intake  for  tree-planting. 
Both  Prof.  Fisher's  report,  published  in  Manchester  in 
1908,  and  an  article  by  A.  P.  Grenfell  in  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Forestry,  iii.  21  (1909),  may  be  consulted  on 
this  interesting  and  successful  attempt  at  afforestation  of  a 
mountain  watershed. 

The  forester,  Mr.  A.  W.  B.  Edwards,  who  wrote  an 
article  in  Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xxvi.  37-45  (1912), 
on  the  methods  of  planting  adopted  at  high  elevations  on 
the  Thirlmere  area,  recommends  autumn  planting  as  a  rule, 
except  for  wet  ground  or  peat,  which  should  be  planted  in 
spring.  He  strongly  advocates  the  use  of  small  plants, 
preferably  2 -year  seedlings.  In  planting  steep  hillsides 
he  uses  the  mattock  (Fig.  15),  commencing  at  the  top  of 
the  intended  plantation  and  working  to  the  bottom  (16). 
He  uses  larch  mixed  with  beech  as  the  main  crop  except  in 
exposed  sites  ;  and  plants  a  belt  of  pines,  generally  a  mixture 
of  Scots,  Corsican,  and  Austrian  pines,  six  or  eight  rows 
wide,  all  round  the  plantation,  and  also  on  any  outstanding 
ridges  and  crags ;  and  at  the  higher  levels  mixes  the  larch 
alternately  with  pines,  passing  gradually  into  pure  larch  as 
he  descends  to  the  1000  feet  contour.  Though  strongly  in 
favour  of  Sitka  spruce  for  high  and  exposed  altitudes,  he 
writes  on  15  th  December  1918  that  this  species  has  only 
been  used  till  now  for  filling  vacancies.  It  has  done  well, 
some  trees  being  about  15  feet  high.  Douglas  fir,  planted 
in  the  spring  of  1908,  now  averages  30  feet  in  height,  while 
Corsican  pine,  planted  alongside  at  the  same  time,  is  about 
1 0  feet  high.  Abies  grandis,  recommended  by  Prof  Fisher, 
was  not  tried,  as  plants  of  it  were  too  dear. 

Longdendale  Valley,  the  catchment  area  of  the  river 
Etherow  and  its  tributaries  in  Cheshire  and  Derbyshire,  is 
19,300  acres  in  extent,  of  which  about  one-third  or  6400 
acres  are  owned  by  the  Manchester  Corporation.  The  area 
is  situated  in  an  elevated  part  of  the  Pennine  range,  and 


AFFOEESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    99 

varies  in  altitude  from  486  to  2060  feet  elevation,  with  an 
average  annual  rainfall  of  40  to  50  inches.  Very  little 
planting  has  been  done  in  this  catchment  area,  the  total 
area  planted  being  about  120  acres  on  the  Cheshire  side 
and  about  30  acres  on  the  Derbyshire  side  of  the  valley. 
There  are  seven  storage  reservoirs:  Woodhead,  782  feet 
elevation;  Torside,  650  feet;  Ehodes  Wood,  574  feet; 
Vale  House,  503  feet;  Bottoms,  486  feet;  Arnfield,  540 
feet ;  and  Hollingworth,  554  feet.  The  two  latter  reservoirs 
are  to  the  west  of  Tintwistle.  The  water  is  passed  through 
copper  wire  gauze  strainers,  but  is  not  filtered.  J.  F.  L.  T, 
Bateman,  History  and  Description  of  Manchester  Waterworks, 
p.  152  (1884),  gives  an  account,  with  map,  of  the  Longden- 
dale  water  catchment  area. 

Leeds  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Washburn 
Valley,  a  tributary  of  the  Wharfe,  about  eight  miles  west  of 
Harrogate.  As  this  district  is  now  being  afforested  by  the 
Corporation,  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  it  was  formerly 
part  of  the  Eoyal  Forest  of  Knaresborough,  which  remained 
thickly  wooded  till  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Iron 
smelting  was  then  extensively  carried  on,  which  resulted  in 
the  gradual  destruction  of  the  timber,  so  that  by  1700  few 
trees  were  left.  The  district  was  enclosed  under  Act  of 
Parliament  of  1770,  and  some  of  the  land  was  subsequently 
broken  up  and  cultivated. 

The  Washburn  Valley  has  a  catchment  area  of  21,552 
acres,  consisting  of  two  divisions.  The  lower  division, 
4505  acres,  is  reserved  for  compensation  water,  which  is 
collected  in  the  Lindley  Wood  reservoir  at  299  feet  altitude. 
The  upper  division,  17,047  acres,  is  reserved  for  domestic 
purposes,  and  has  two  reservoirs,  Swinsty  reservoir  at  449 
feet  elevation  and  Fewston  reservoir  at  503  feet. 

Between  1867  and  1900  Leeds  Corporation  acquired, 
out  of  the  whole  area,  about  10,700  acres,  which  consist 
chiefly  of  gently  sloping  land  on  either  side  of  the  Wash- 
burn, descending  from  an  upper  limit  of  900-1390  feet  to 
the  levels  of  the  reservoirs,  299-449  feet.     The  geological 


100  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

formation  is  millstone  grit  underlying  glacial  clay  with 
boulders',  forming  a  soil  wet  in  winter  and  very  dry  in 
summer.  The  soil  is  generally  a  sandy  loam,  warm  and 
dry  on  the  southern  slopes,  where  much  of  the  clay  appears 
to  have  been  denuded,  and  cold  and  stiff  with  the  clay  pre- 
dominating on  the  northern  slopes,  while  there  is  some  peat 
at  the  high  altitudes.  The  land  may  be  roughly  divided 
into  two  classes,  grassland  and  moorland,  the  former  occupy- 
ing the  lower  reaches  immediately  surrounding  the  reservoirs, 
while  moorland  and  poor  pasture  occupy  the  upper  reaches. 
There  are  about  120  farms  in  the  valley,  nearly  all  small 
holdings  of  grass,  with  little  arable  land.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent any  pollution  from  these  farms,  the  Corporation  decided 
in  1904  to  reafforest  part  of  the  valley,  with  the  primary 
object  of  purifying  the  water,  and  secondly,  with  the  view 
of  giving  work  to  the  unemployed  in  Leeds.  For  three 
seasons  men  drawn  from  the  Unemployed  Bureau  were 
engaged  in  planting.  Economic  planting  proved  to  be  im- 
possible with  this  class  of  labour ;  and  since  1909  the  work 
has  been  done  with  a  permanent  staff  of  ten  men,  with 
extra  help  during  busy  times.  30  to  40  acres  of  new 
land  surrounding  the  reservoirs  have  been  planted  each  year  ; 
and  up  to  August  1914  about  835  acres  had  been  planted 
with  3,400,000  trees.  In  October  1918  the  area  of  grow- 
ing timber  was  "over  900  acres,  and  the  results  very  good 
indeed"  (17). 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  the  unemployed  during  three 
seasons,  Mr.  C.  G.  Henzell,  Waterworks  Engineer  of  Leeds, 
states  (18)  that  the  average  cost  of  draining,  fencing,  plant- 
ing, etc.,  was  £12  per  acre;  but  that  the  cost  should  not 
,have  been  more  than  £8  per  acre,  the  excess  being  due  to 
the  employment  of  inexperienced  men.  Much  of  the  work 
was  badly  done,  and  the  failures  were  quite  30  per  cent. 
The  men  were  not  accustomed  to  spade  work,  and  few  were 
able  to  stand  the  rough  weather.  Any  scheme  of  afforesta- 
tion will  undoubtedly  afford  employment  to  a  considerable 
number  of  men,  but  planting  trees  is  skilled  work  and 
requires    preliminary    training       The    great    advantage    of 


AFFOKESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    101 

forestry  work  is  that  it  is  mainly  done  in  winter,  when  the 
demand  for  ordinary  agricultural  labour  is  slack.  A  com- 
bination, in  any  part  of  the  country,  of  afforestation  and 
farming  will  provide  continuous  labour  to  the  rural  popula- 
tion, and  automatically  get  rid  of  the  unemployment  problem. 

A  complete  account  of  the  Washburn  Valley  afforesta- 
tion scheme  by  Mr.  A.  Pope,  the  forester  in  charge,  appeared 
in  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  viii.  pp.  190-207  (1914), 
with  map,  now  reproduced  (Fig.  12),  and  should  be  read 
by  those  interested  in  planting  on  land  of  the  varied  char- 
acter that  is  usually  met  with  in  upland  gathering  grounds. 

The  water  in  the  Swinsty  reservoir  is  connected  by  four 
mains  with  Eccup  reservoir,  south  of  Harewood  Park,  whence 
it  is  conveyed  to  filter  beds  at  Weetwood,  near  Leeds. 

In  addition  to  the  Washburn  area,  the  Leeds  Corpora- 
tion have  several  other  waterworks  schemes,  not  yet  com- 
pleted, as  follows : 

Laver  Valley,  west  of  Eipon,  catchment  area  of  7334 
acres,  of  which  4000  acres  have  been  acquired  by  the  Cor- 
poration. It  is  proposed  to  build  on  this  area  two  reser- 
voirs, one  at  Laverton  for  compensation  water,  and  another  at 
Carlesmoor,  a  mile  higher  up  the  stream,  for  domestic  supply. 

Burn  Valley,  catchment  area  of  5886  acres,  with  a  con- 
templated reservoir  just  below  Colsterdale  village,  west  of 
Masham. 

Pott  Beck  Valley,  catchment  area  of  4702  acres,  with 
Leighton  reservoir,  now  in  course  of  construction.  This 
area  derives  its  supply  from  the  lower  part  of  the  Pott 
Beck  Valley,  Grimes  Gill,  and  Spruce  Gill  Beck,  and  is 
contiguous  with  the  catchment  area  of  Roundhill  reservoir, 
belonging  to  Harrogate,  which  gets  its  water  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  Pott  Beck  Valley. 

Birmingham  has  the  largest  watershed  of  all  the  Cor- 
porations, 45,562  acres,  situated  in  the  Elan  and  Claerwen 
valleys  in  Radnorshire  and  Breconshire.  It  ranges  in 
altitude  from  822  feet,  the  level  of  the  Caban  Coch  reser- 
voir, to  2115  feet,  the  average  elevation  being  about  1350 


102  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

feet.  The  greater  part  of  the  area  is  open  mountain 
pasture  and  moorland,  not  carrying  more  than  one  sheep 
to  the  acre.  Geologically  the  area  consists  of  Lower  Silurian 
slates,  grits,  and  conglomerates ;  and  on  some  of  the  flatter 
tops  of  the  hills  peat  occurs  in  places  to  a  considerable 
depth.  The  catchment  area  is  sparsely  peopled,  there  being 
only  30  inhabited  dwelling-houses  in  1912,  containing 
a  population  of  perhaps  150,  or  say  2  persons  per  square 
mile.  The  greater  part  of  the  area  is  commonable  land, 
but  the  Corporation  have  secured  the  rights  over  most  of 
the  commons,  and  have  purchased  all  freehold  lands  in 
order  to  be  able  to  protect  the  water  from  pollution  at  its 
source.  "These  commons  now  carry  about  24,000  sheep, 
and  no  cattle  are  allowed,  so  that  the  freedom  of  the  water 
from  animal  contamination  is  beyond  doubt."  According 
to  information  supplied  officially  in  July  1918,  the 
Birmingham  Corporation  have  acquired  manorial  rights 
over  the  whole  area  of  45,562  acres.  The  Corporation 
now  own  all  the  freeholds,  5263  acres,  of  which  878  acres 
are  covered  by  reservoirs.  The  commons  comprise  40,299 
acres;  and  the  Corporation  have  acquired  common  rights 
and  rights  of  pasturage  over  32,714  acres,  leaving  an  area 
of  7585  acres,  of  which  these  rights  are  unpurchased  or 
disputed. 

The  low-lying  valleys,  which  formerly  served  as  winter- 
ing ground  for  sheep  with  farm  steadings,  etc.,  became  useless 
for  this  purpose  as  soon  as  they  were  submerged  and 
occupied  by  reservoirs.  It  was  found  necessary  to  provide 
shelter  for  flocks ;  and  the  Corporation  decided  that  the 
best  form  of  shelter  would  be  the  putting  down  of  planta- 
tions in  suitable  places.  Certain  sites  were  selected,  and 
by  1909  nine  separate  plantations,  with  an  area  of  410 
acres,  between  900  and  1500  feet  elevation  had  been 
made  and  were  reported  to  be  very  flourishing.  The  work 
here  was  done  by  contract,  costing  according  to  elevation 
from  £3  :  13  :  7  to  £4  :  18  :  9  per  acre,  exclusive  of  fencing 
and  clearing  the  site.  These  items  raised  the  total  average 
cost  to  £7  :  10s.  per  acre. 


AFFOKESTATION  OF  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    103 

By  the  spring  of  1914  the  area  of  the  plantations  had 
been  increased  to  550  acres.  In  1913  a  further  develop- 
ment was  under  discussion  with  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
who  submitted  a  scheme  for  the  planting  of  761  acres 
additional  over  a  period  extending  to  the  season  1929-1930, 
or  a  little  over  50  acres  annually.  The  Corporation,  while 
adopting  this  scheme  as  a  plan  to  be  generally  followed, 
ultimately  decided  to  proceed  independently  of  any  loan 
from  or  partnership  with  the  Board  of  Agriculture  or 
Development  Commissioners.  Since  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  this  plan  has  been  interfered  with  owing  to  lack  of 
labour;  and  the  additional  area  planted  has  been  about  40 
acres  only,  making  the  total  area  under  plantation  in  May 
1917  about  590  acres.  Mr.  E.  A.  Lees,  Secretary  to  the  City 
of  Birmingham  Water  Department,  to  whom  I  am  indebted 
for  this  information,  states  that  the  whole  of  the  lands 
available  for  plantation  in  the  Elan  Valley  are  comprised 
in  the  scheme  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  amount  to 
about  1300  acres.  This  seems  to  be  a  small  proportion 
indeed  of  the  45,562  acres  included  in  the  catchment  area ; 
but  the  explanation  is  given  in  the  following  statement 
made  by  Mr.  Lees  at  the  Afforestation  Conference  of  1907 
(Pari.  Paper,  No.  98,  p.  41):  "There  is  difficulty  in 
obtaining  land  for  planting.  Although  we  control  the 
whole  of  our  gathering  grounds,  there  are  other  rights  in 
it ;  there  are,  for  instance,  the  rights  of  the  commoners. 
We  can  control  as  regards  the  surface.  Consequently  the 
areas  which  hitherto  we  have  been  able  to  utilise  for 
planting  have  been  confined  to  our  own  freeholds  and 
commons  which  were  already  within  the  limits  of  our 
works.  If  planting  is  to  be  carried  out  to  any  considerable 
extent,  it  will  certainly  be  necessary  to  give  facilities  for 
the  recovery  of  common  lands." 

The  Eeconstruction  Forestry  Report,  1918,  p.  94,  states 
that  a  survey  made  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  disclosed 
6800  acres  suitable  for  afforestation  on  the  Elan  catchment 
area. 

A  full  account  of  the  Elan  watershed,  with  plan  and 


104  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

map,  is  given  by  B.  L.  and  W.  L.  Mansergh  in  Proc.  Inst. 
Civil  Engineers,  vol.  190,  pp.  3-88  (1912).  See  also 
Ward  and  Baddeley,  Ghiide  to  South  Wales,  p.  106  (1903). 
The  average  annual  rainfall  over  the  whole  area  is  69 
inches. 

NOTES 

1.  In  Journ.  Sanitary  Iiistitute,  xxii.  (1901)  p.  471. 

2.  In  a  valuable  paper,  "Afforestation  of  Water  Catchment  Areas,"  read 
before  the  British  Association  at  Southport  in  1903.  See  Trans.  Roy.  Scot. 
Arbor.  Soc.  xvii.  p.  223  (1904). 

3.  In  Froc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  167  (1907),  p.  240. 

4.  In  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  181  (1910),  p.  148. 

5.  Water  from  many  of  the  moorland  gathering  grounds  of  Yorkshire  and 
Lancashire,  and  from  lakes  in  some  cases  (Loch  Katrine,  for  instance),  is  not 
filtered  in  any  way. 

6.  "The  Afforestation  of  Waterworks  Catchment  Areas"  in  Trans.  Roy. 
Eng.  Arbor.  Soc.  vi.  276-284  (1906). 

7.  See  Memorandum  to  Dundee  Water  Commissioners,  22nd  December 
1910,  reprinted  in  Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xxiv.  191  (1911). 

8.  In  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  167,  p.  154  (1907). 

9.  See  Report  of  Royal  Commission  on  Housing,  Scotland,  Blue  Book,  Cd. 
8731  of  1917,  pp.' 253,  254,  260. 

10.  This  paragraph  is  taken  from  Return  as  to  Water  Undertakings  in 
England  and  Wales,  Pari.  Paper,  1915,  No.  395,  p.  xxxvi. 

11.  See  Journal  of  Board  of  Agriculture,  xvi.  p.  265  (July  1909);  also 
Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xxiii.  p.  22  (1910). 

12.  An  interesting  account  of  the  A'yrnwy  and  Rivington  Afforestation 
Schemes  was  given  by  Mr.  Joseph  Parry  at  the  Board  of  Agriculture  Afforesta- 
tion Conference  on  25th  June  1907  (Pari.  Paper,  No.  98,  pp.  26-30).  Mr. 
Harmood  Banner,  of  the  Association  of  Municipal  Corporations,  considered 
that  municipalities  were  bound  to  aflbrest  around  their  sewage-farms,  "  to 
hide  that  ugly  blot  which  so  very  often  comes  near  our  towns  [and  disfigures 
the  scenery." 

13.  An  account,  with  map,  of  the  Vyrnwy  Waterworks  is  given  by  G.  F. 
Deacon  in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  126,  pp.  26-69  (1896). 

14.  An  account,  with  map,  of  the  Thirlmere  Waterworks  is  given  by 
G.  H.  Hill  in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  126,  pp.  4-25  (1896). 

15.  See  W.  R.  Fisher,  Working  Plan  Report  of  Woodlands  round  Lake 
Thirlmere  (1908)  ;  and  Sir  Bosden  Leech,  in  Board  of  Agriculture  Afforesta- 
tion Conference  Rejmrt,  1907,  p.  38. 

16.  In  Fig.  15  the  three  different  operations  of  the  mattock  in  planting 
stony  ground  are  shown  from  left  to  right :  (1)  The  turf  is  pared  off  with 
the  flat  end  of  the  mattock,  the  pointed  end  being  used  for  loosening  the 
soil  ;  (2)  the  plant  is  inserted  ;  and  (3)  the  plant  is  made  firm  in  the  soil. 
In  ordinarj'  soils  the  plants  are  notched  with  spades  into  the  pits  prepared 
by  the  mattock. 

17.  See  Timber  Trades  Journal,  19th  October  1918,  p.  503. 

18.  See  Minutes  of  Evideiice,  vol.  ii.  part  ii.  p.  224,  Royal  Commission  on 
Coast  Erosion  (1909). 


CHAPTER   VIII 

CONDITIONS    AFFECTING    THE    PLANTING    OF    WATER 
CATCHMENT    AREAS 

In  considering  the  advisability  of  afforesting  a  water  catch- 
ment area,  the  principal  points  to  be  ascertained  are  the 
acreage  and  situation  of  the  land  that  will  prove  suitable 
for  planting  and  the  species  that  ought  to  be  employed. 
Before  drawing  up  any  scheme  a  preliminary  survey  of  the 
ground  is  necessary,  careful  attention  being  paid  to  the 
different  factors  that  influence  the  growth  of  trees.  In 
other  words,  the  altitude,  shelter  from  wind  or  exposure, 
the  nature  and  depth  of  the  soil,  and  the  existing  vegetation 
must  be  ascertained  for  each  of  the  different  sections  into 
which  the  area  can  be  conveniently  divided.  It  is  very 
seldom  that  the  whole  of  a  watershed  can  be  covered  with 
trees.  Plantations  will  not  succeed  at  a  high  elevation 
or  in  exposed  situations,  or  where  the  ground  is  covered 
with  solid  rock  or  with  deep  wet  peat.  It  is  generally 
admitted  that  the  larger  the  block  to  be  planted,  the  more 
economical  will  be  the  initial  cost  of  fencing  and  planting, 
and  the  expense  of  care  and  management  in  after  years. 
This  argument  need  not  be  pushed  to  extremes  in  the  case 
of  municipally  owned  land,  where  commercial  profit  is  not 
the  sole  consideration.  On  catchment  areas  where  exten- 
sive schemes  of  afforestation  seem  impracticable,  it  will  be 
advantageous  to  plant  belts  of  trees  or  narrow  plantations 
around  the  reservoirs  and  above  the  streams  leading  into 
them,  and  by  this  means  diminish  the  risk  of  contamination 
105 


106  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

from  adjacent  arable  land  or  pasture.  Small  plantations 
of  this  kind  will  scarcely  produce  remunerative  timber, 
but  their  establishment  can  be  justified  as  a  hygienic 
measure. 

As  most  of  the  gathering  grounds  of  water  supplies  lie 
in  hilly  or  mountainous  districts,  and  often  include  a  good 
deal  of  moorland,  it  will  be  of  interest  to  discuss  at  some 
length  the  factors  that  influence  the  growth  of  trees  in  such 
situations  in  the  British  Isles. 

The  existing  vegetation  on  an  area  gives  the  most 
important  clue  as  regards  the  possibility  of  success  or 
failure  of  artificial  plantations.  In  most  parts  of  England, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland  three  well-defined  zones  of  vegetation 
can  be  readily  distinguished,  namely,  the  agrarian  zone,  the 
zone  of  hill  pasture,  and  the  moorland  zone.  Lowest  of  all 
is  the  agrarian  zone,  which  comprises  the  farm  land,  includ- 
ing cultivated  grazing  land,  as  well  as  most  parks  and  much 
of  our  woodlands.  In  the  agrarian  zone  there  are,  however, 
great  tracts  that  have  never  been  brought  under  cultivation, 
as  the  heaths  of  southern  and  eastern  England  and  the  low- 
lying  peat-bogs  in  Ireland.  Nevertheless,  most  of  this  zone 
was  originally  covered  with  forest,  and  any  part  of  a  catch- 
ment area  coming  within  it  can,  as  a  rule,  be  planted,  unless 
conditions  of  the  soil,  like  the  occurrence  of  deep  peat, 
marsh,  etc.,  prevent  the  growth  of  trees.  In  other  words, 
up  to  a  certain  altitude,  namely,  to  the  line  above  which  oats 
cease  to  be  cultivated,  plantations  are  usually  successful  and 
remunerative. 

The  zone  of  hill  pasture  occurs  above  the  farm  land,  and 
is  mainly  devoted  to  sheep  and  cattle.  It  is  very  variable 
in  its  composition,  and  includes  a  considerable  amount  of 
woodland  and  scrub.  It  extends  up  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
and  mountains,  and  ends  practically  wliere  the  soil  becomes 
peaty  and  the  moorland  begins.  It  is  probable  that  the 
whole  of  this  zone  was  once  covered  with  natural  woods, 
and  hence  its  great  importance  in  schemes  of  afforestation. 
It  constitutes  a  good  part  of  the  so-called  waste  land, 
which,   it   is   believed,   would   pay   better   if  covered   with 


Q    g 


PLANTING  OF  WATER  CATCHMENT  AEEAS   107 

trees  than  if  left  in  its  present  state  as  poor  grazing 
land. 

The  hill  pasture  is  often  common  land,  serving  as  grazing 
for  sheep  and  occasionally  cattle  in  the  summer  months,  and 
in  such  cases  it  is  troublesome  to  purchase  the  grazing 
rights  from  the  numerous  owners  who  occupy  the  farms 
below.  The  Birmingham  Corporation  had  great  difficulty 
in  getting  rid  of  these  rights  on  their  catchment  area  in 
Wales.  Prof  Somerville  estimates  that  the  average 
amount  of  mutton  produced  on  poor  hill  pasture  in 
Wales  and  in  Scotland  is  about  10  lbs.  per  acre 
annually.  Afforestation  of  the  hill  pasture  would  appar- 
ently displace  the  sheep  and  to  some  extent  diminish  the 
meat  supply  of  the  nation.  These  calculations  do  not, 
however,  take  into  account  the  amelioration  in  climate 
brought  about  in  high -lying  districts  by  afforestation. 
The  shelter  provided  by  plantations  in  the  zone  of  hill 
pasture  has  a  marked  effect  in  improving  the  value  of  the 
grazing  and  arable  lands  in  the  farms  immediately  below. 
In  the  mountains  of  Denbighshire  and  Wicklow  wherever 
there  are  farms  protected  by  plantations,  the  farmers  are 
enabled  to  keep  sheep  out  in  the  winter,  and  all  stock  thrive 
better.  The  upper  limit  of  the  arable  land  is  pushed  higher 
when  there  are  sheltering  plantations,  and  the  gain  to  the 
district  is  considerable. 

The  last  point  is  of  considerable  importance.  Most 
writers  advocate  the  afforestation  of  mountain  waste  land 
in  large  continuous  blocks,  and  do  not  consider  the  effect 
upon  the  adjoining  land.  It  is  possible  that  a  joint  scheme 
of  afforestation  and  reclamation  would  be  more  profitable 
than  a  scheme  of  afforestation  only.  Mountain  slopes  might 
be  planted  in  widely  separated  blocks,  joined  on  the  upper 
side  by  narrow  belts,  the  intervening  blank  areas  being 
utilised  for  grazing  and  farming.  The  pasture  of  these 
areas  might  often  be  much  improved  by  draining  and  by 
manuring  with  basic  slag,  whicli  induce  the  production  of 
grass  in  greater  quantity  and  of  better  quality.  Where 
there  are  great  numbers  of  small  farmers,  as  in  Wales  and 


108  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

Ireland,  extensive  hill  plantations  and  shelter  belts  might 
be  made  on  the  co-operative  system  if  State  aid  in  the  shape 
of  loans  for  planting  were  available. 

The  recognition  of  the  hill-pasture  zone  is  easy  if  it  is 
understood  to  include  all  the  ground  above  the  enclosed  farm 
laud  and  below  the  heather  moorland.  Its  altitude  is 
variable,  ranging,  for  example,  in  the  Dublin  Mountains 
between  900  and  1250  feet  and  in  the  Northern  Pennines 
between  1000  and  1250  feet.  It  is  also  very  variable  in 
composition,  including  woodland,  scrub,  grassland,  brakes  of 
bracken  fern,  and  thickets  of  small  whin  {Ulex  gallii)  on 
siliceous  soils.  In  the  Pennines  the  natural  wood  is  mainly 
oak  or  birch,  the  former  small  and  scrubby  above  1000  feet, 
the  latter  ascending  to  1250  feet.  The  grassland  consists 
mainly  of  mat-grass  {Nardus  stricta)  and  silver  hair  grass 
{Deschampsia  Jlexuosa)  on  the  drier  soils,  with  sheep's  fescue 
{Festuca  ovina)  at  the  lower  levels,  while  the  wetter  ground 
is  dominated  by  purple  moor -grass  {Molinia  caerulea). 
Bracken  occurs  over  large  areas  in  places,  and  its  present 
upper  altitude  line  corresponds  very  closely  with  the  limit 
reached  by  the  pre-existing  forest.  In  fact,  wherever 
bracken  and  small  whin  are  present  they  are  a  sure  sign 
that  plantations  may  be  tried  with  confidence.  Dr.  W.  G. 
Smith  says :  "  Bracken  is  an  indication  of  a  soil  at  least 
six  or  nine  inches  deep,  moist  yet  well  drained,  and  not  peat, 
because  only  in  these  conditions  can  the  underground  stems 
of  this  fern  survive ;  the  conditions  are  therefore  suitable 
for  afforestation."  The  small  whin  occurs  only  in  patches 
in  the  Pennines,  but  is  very  abundant  on  the  Malvern  Hills 
and  the  Dublin  Mountains.  On  limestone  soils  the  zone  of 
hill  pasture  has  a  different  composition,  the  characteristic 
woods  being  ash,  birch,  and  wych  elm,  while  the  grassland 
is  a  short  grassy  turf,  largely  composed  of  roots  of  sheep's 
fescue.  The  characteristic  grasses  of  non-limestone  soil, 
Nardus,  Deschampsia,  and  Molinia,  are  totally  absent. 
Bracken,  whin,  and  rushes,  so  common  on  siliceous  soils, 
are  of  very  rare  occurrence,  and  perhaps  are  confined  to 
leached  soils  or  soils  mixed  with  non-calcareous  material. 


PLANTING  OF  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS   109 

The  moorland  zone,  occurring  on  the  hills  and  mountains 
above  the  limits  of  the  hill  pasture,  owes  the  peculiar 
character  of  its  vegetation  to  the  presence  of  peat,  which 
varies  in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  many  feet,  and  overlies 
shale,  sandstone,  granite,  and  other  rocks,  but  is  rare  on 
limestone.  The  peat  also  varies  much  in  the  quantity  of 
water  which  it  contains,  and  to  this  is  due  the  various  types 
of  vegetation  that  are  met  with  in  the  moorland  zone. 
Botanists  distinguish  in  this  zone,  as  main  types  or  associa- 
tions, heather  moor,  cotton-grass  moor,  Scirpus  or  spike-rush 
moor,  bilberry  moor,  and  Sphagnum  moor. 

Heather  grows  on  peat  where  the  drainage  is  good,  and 
is  most  vigorous  when  the  water  content  of  the  peat  is  less 
than  50  per  cent.  It  thus  occupies  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
and  mountains  immediately  above  the  hill  pasture,  and 
ceases  to  thrive  on  the  higher  parts,  where  the  ground  is 
flatter  and  the  drainage  is  impeded.  There  are  thus,  as  a  rule, 
extensive  heather  moors  on  the  slopes  with  shallow  and 
dry  peat,  succeeded  above  by  cotton-grass,  Scirpus,  and 
Sphagnum  moors,  where  the  peat  is  deep  and  sodden  with 
moisture. 

The  lower  limit  of  the  heather  moor  is  determined  by 
the  cessation  of  the  peat  and  is  very  variable.  It  occasion- 
ally descends  in  the  Southern  Pennines  to  750  feet,  but  as 
a  rule  in  this  range  seldom  goes  lower  than  1000  feet 
elevation.  Its  upper  limit  is  mainly  a  question  of  drainage 
and  scarcely  depends  on  altitude,  as  heather  grows  to  a  high 
elevation  if  the  peat  is  dry.  In  the  Southern  Pennines  the 
heather  moor  ascends  to  about  1500  feet,  but  it  often  gets 
up  to  2000  feet  in  the  Northern  Pennines.  The  heather 
moors  are  the  typical  grouse  moors,  and  are  often  preserved 
for  shooting,  the  heather  being  set  fire  to  every  few  years  to 
promote  young  growth. 

The  heaths  in  the  south  of  England,  which  are  often 
immense  tracts  at  a  low  elevation,  are  also  covered  with 
heather,  but  are  distinct  from  the  heather  moors  in  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  The  soil  of  the  moors  is  always  peat, 
whereas  that  of  the  heaths  is  poor  sand  or  gravel,  the  upper 


no  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

part  of  which  is  mixed  with  dark  humus,  passing  at  the  surface 
into  a  very  thin  layer  of  acid  dry  peat.  In  most  heaths  a  hard 
'  pan '  forms  at  some  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

In  north-east  Yorkshire  there  are  heaths  at  a  high 
elevation,  between  800  and  1250  feet,  which  are  developed 
on  a  few  inches  of  humous  sand,  covered  by  two  or  three 
inches  of  sandy  peat,  and  passing  down  into  sand.  These 
heaths,  inasmuch  as  the  dominant  vegetation  is  heather,  are 
popularly  called  moors,  and  are  used  for  preserving  grouse ; 
but  they  differ  from  the  heather  moors  of  the  Pennines  and 
of  the  Dublin  Mountains,  which  rest  on  pure  peat  of  a 
considerable  depth. 

Similarly  in  the  central  and  eastern  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  namely,  in  the  basins  of  the  Tay,  Dee,  and  Spey, 
there  are  immense  heaths,  between  500  and  2000  feet 
elevation,  which  are  colloquially  termed  moors  and  are  used 
for  grouse  shooting.  These  heaths  are  somewhat  inter- 
mediate in  character,  as  the  heather  grows  in  a  greater 
depth  of  surface  peat,  four  to  eight  inches,  than  occurs  in 
the  English  heaths,  but,  like  the  latter,  they  are  developed 
on  sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  in  which  acid  peaty  humus  has 
accumulated.  At  a  depth  of  one  to  two  feet  there  is 
often  a  layer  of  moor-pan. 

Heaths  are  much  drier  than  heather  moors,  and  for 
purposes  of  afforestation  must  be  considered  quite  distinct 
from  the  latter.  Extensive  wild  and  cultivated  forests  of 
Scots  pine  occur  on  the  heaths  of  the  Scottish  Highlands ; 
and  this  species,  if  unchecked  by  man,  would  speedily 
colonise  the  heaths  of  the  south  of  England.  Heaths  are 
thus  very  suitable  for  plantations  of  conifers,  especially 
of  pine  and  larch,  the  only  hindrance  being  exposure  to  the 
wind  where  the  land  is  at  a  considerable  altitude  and  not 
protected  by  surrounding  high  mountains.  Heather  moors 
are  not  so  favourable  for  afforestation  on  account  of  the 
depth  and  wetness  of  the  peat,  on  which  trees  will  rarely 
grow  big  enough  to  yield  commercial  timber,  unless  the 
situation  is  sheltered  and  the  peat  is  drained. 

Above    the   zone    of   heather    moor,   the    peat    usually 


PLANTING  OF  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  111 

becomes  deeper  and  wetter,  especially  on  the  badly  drained 
plateaux,  and  heather  ceases  to  grow  or  loses  its  vigour, 
becoming  thin  and  stunted.  On  the  wet  moors  other 
plants  take  the  place  of  the  heather,  the  most  widely  spread 
being  cotton  -  grass  {Eriophorum  angustifolium  and  E. 
vaginahvm),  spike-rush  or  Scirpus  caespitosics,  and  various 
species  of  Sphagnum  moss.  All  these  plants  grow  in  deep 
peat  sodden  with  moisture.  The  highest  wet  moors  are 
often  the  cotton-grass  moors,  characterised  by  the  growth  of 
one  or  both  species  of  EriopJiorum,  on  peat  rarely  less  than 
5,  often  10  to  15  and  even  30  feet  in  depth  and  saturated 
with  water.  Scattered  amongst  the  cotton-grass  moors  are 
limited  areas  of  Sphagnum  moor,  also  on  very  wet  peat. 
Cotton-grass  moors  are  common  in  the  Pennine  range  on 
gently  sloping  plateaux,  between  1200  and  2200  feet 
elevation,  and  on  account  of  their  wetness  are  locally 
named  mosses.  Peat  is  being  formed  at  a  rapid  rate  in 
them  at  the  present  time.  The  Scirpus  moors  are  also 
developed  on  deep  peat,  which  is  still  being  accumulated, 
and  is  saturated  with  water  at  most  times  of  the  year. 
The  Scirpus  is  often  mixed  with  a  considerable  amount  of 
stunted  heather.  The  Scirpus  moors  are  very  widely  spread 
in  the  north  of  Scotland,  the  western  Highlands,  Hebrides, 
Shetlands,  etc.,  and  are  common  in  the  Dublin  Mountains 
at  lower  elevations  than  the  cotton-grass  moors.  Peat  is 
also  being  formed  at  the  present  day  in  the  Scirpus  moors. 

In  the  southern  Uplands  of  Scotland  and  the  western 
Highlands,  Westmorland  and  Wales,  there  are  the  so-called 
grass  moors,  which  cover  extensive  areas  of  badly  drained 
glacial  till  and  boulder  clay.  The  dominant  vegetation 
consists  of  moor-grass  {Molinia  caerulea),  mat-grass  {Nardiis 
stricta),  and  rush  (Jiincus  squarrosus),  growing  on  a  peaty 
acid  soil,  which  is  wet  during  most  of  the  year.  A  surface 
peaty  layer,  consisting  of  a  sod  six  to  nine  inches  thick, 
made  up  of  bases  of  shoots  and  rhizomes,  rests  on  an 
impervious  subsoil.  The  grass  moor  is  not  a  true  moor  as 
the  soil  is  not  pure  peat.  It  is  much  wetter  than  ordinary 
hill  pasture  and  has  less  value  for  grazing. 


112  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

The  wet  moors  are  unsuitable  for  afforestation,  as  trees 
cannot  grow  in  sodden  peat  containing  a  large  amount 
o£  water.  All  the  peaty  moorlands,  in  which  the  common 
plants  are  cotton  -  grass.  Sphagnum,  Scirpus  caespitosus, 
heather,  cro wherry  (Umpetrum  nigrum),  and  purple  moor- 
grass  {Molinia  caerulea),  cannot  be  planted  with  trees 
as  long  as  they  remain  in  their  present  condition.  The 
soil  is  much  too  wet  and  too  sour.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  cover  such  areas  with  plantations,  but  it  is  doubtful 
if  this  has  ever  been  accomplished  on  commercial  lines. 
For  trees  to  have  any  chance  of  success,  a  great  deal  of 
preliminary  work  is  necessary,  as  the  peat  must  first  be 
thoroughly  drained,  so  that  all  stagnant  water  is  removed. 
The  upper  surface  of  the  peat,  consisting  of  the  roots  of 
cotton-grass,  Scirpus,  heather,  etc.,  matted  into  a  tough 
fibrous  sod,  must  be  broken  up  and  converted  by  decay  into 
mould,  before  young  trees  can  secure  a  footing.  The 
removal  of  the  upper  layer  of  the  peat  to  a  depth  of  one 
or  two  feet  gives  young  trees  a  better  soil,  but  this  is 
an  expensive  process.  Probably  the  most  economical 
method  is  the  system  (Fig.  17)  introduced  from  Belgium 
into  Scotland  by  Sir  J.  Stirling  Maxwell.  Shallow  drains 
are  made  a  few  feet  apart.  The  turfs,  cut  out  of  the 
drains,  are  placed  face  downwards  on  the  intervening 
ridges  and  left  to  weather  for  a  year.  By  that  time  the 
ground  has  begun  to  dry,  the  turfs  have  sunk  considerably, 
and  the  herbage  below  them  has  begun  to  decay.  On  each 
inverted  turf  a  young  tree  is  planted,  a  handful  of  ordinary 
soil  or  sand  being  put  in  with  each  plant.  Further 
particulars  of  the  Belgian  system  of  planting  on  peat 
moors  will  be  found  in  Trans.  Boy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Sac.  xx. 
1-7  (1907),  and  xxviii.  72-78  (1914). 

Planting  in  the  peat  moors  will  scarcely  ever  be 
directly  profitable,  as  the  timber  produced  does  not  justify 
the  expense.  Nevertheless  there  is  much  to  be  said  in 
favour  of  planting  narrow  belts  of  trees  in  the  heather 
moor  immediately  above  areas  that  are  being  afforested 
in  the  adjoining  hill  pasture.     In  hilly  and  mountainous 


Fic.  14. — Tliiilnieio  Catcliment  Aiea.  general  view. 
(From  E.  V.  StcbbiiiLC,  Ilritisli  Forestrii.) 


Fic.  15. — Mattoek  planting  on  Thirlmere  Catchment  Area. 

(From  TransmjUuii^  lloi/'ij  Srottish  Ai-boitcuUnral Society,  vol.  2>j.) 


,G.— lalla  l.iicliiiMiil  Aiva.   [.laiitiug  April  191. 
(Fiom  E.  P.  Stebliing,  I'.iitish  Fnrestr,/.) 


,^  17.— Belgian  JMethod  of  planting  Teat,  four  rows  of  inverted  turfs 
lietween  the  drains. 
(From  Transactions  Soyal  Scottish  ArboricuUnral  Society,  vol.  28.) 


PLANTING  OF  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS   113 

districts,  the  upper  zone  of  any  plantation,  no  matter  of 
what  altitude,  is  stunted,  broken,  and  battered  by  the  wind. 
It  is  advisable,  then,  to  carry  planting  on  hill  slopes  some 
distance  beyond  the  favourable  ground  for  trees,  as  in  this 
way  an  upper  shelter  belt  is  formed,  which  will  be  very 
useful  in  breaking  the  force  of  the  wind.  Practically, 
then,  the  only  plantations  that  should  be  attempted  on  peat 
moors  are  in  the  nature  of  shelter  belts. 

The  effect  of  altitude  on  trees  will  now  be  briefly 
considered.  The  lowered  temperature  and  short  growing 
season  at  high  altitudes  militate  against  growth  of  vegeta- 
tion ;  and,  as  is  well  known,  trees  cease  to  exist  above  a 
certain  elevation,  varying  with  the  climate  and  latitude. 
Mere  altitude  is,  however,  scarcely  so  important  as  other 
factors,  which  depress  the  timber-line,  the  name  given  to 
the  limit  to  which  woodland  ascends.  Trees,  on  account 
of  their  extensive  foliage  surface,  transpire  enormous 
quantities  of  water;  and  their  growth  is  checked  or 
stopped  altogether  when  the  transpiration  becomes  excessive. 
Wind  increases  transpiration,  and  the  greater  the  velocity 
of  the  wind,  the  greater  the  transpiration.  At  high 
altitudes  the  wind  is  more  constant  and  attains  a  greater 
velocity  than  at  low  levels ;  and  the  main  cause  of  the 
low  timber-line  in  the  British  Isles  appears  to  be  the  force 
and  constancy  of  the  prevailing  winds. 

This  view  is  confirmed  by  recent  investigations  in 
Switzerland  by  Dr.  Brockmann-Jerosch,  who  states  that  the 
upper  tree  limit  is  not  determined  by  any  one  factor,  such 
as  rainfall,  snowfall,  or  the  average  temperature  of  the  year. 
It  is  determined  for  each  locality  by  the  physiography  or 
lie  of  the  land,  or  in  other  words  by  the  exposure.  This 
agrees  substantially  with  the  fact  that  in  a  continental 
climate,  with  hot  dry  summers  and  cold  severe  winters,  the 
tree  limit  in  the  mountains  is  higher  than  in  an  oceanic 
mild  climate,  as  in  the  latter  there  is  more  wind  and 
consequent  increase  of  transpiration.  The  best  example 
in  Scotland  is  the  great  height  of  the  tree -line  in  the 
Cairngorm  and  Deeside   Highlands,  as  compared  with  the 

I 


114  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Inverness  and  Argyllshire  Highlands.  The  climate  of 
the  former  may  be  considered  continental  and  that  of  the 
latter  oceanic ;  but  it  is  probably  the  exposure  to  the  wind 
which  makes  the  difference  in  the  height  of  the  tree-line. 

Dr.  M.  Hardie's  interesting  remarks  on  this  subject  in 
Scottish  Geographical  Magazine,  May  1906,  are  worth 
quoting  in  extenso  at  the  risk  of  some  repetition  :  "  The 
upper  forest  limit  is  determined  entirely  by  wind.  It 
is  higher  in  the  east  than  in  the  west,  at  the  eastern  than 
at  the  western  exposure,  in  the  south  than  in  the  north. 
Fairly  constant  at  an  altitude  of  from  1800  to  1900  feet 
in  the  middle  Highlands,  it  rapidly  goes  down  to  from 
1400  to  1500  feet  on  the  scattered  and  exposed  mountains 
of  Sutherland,  eventually  reaching  a  much  lower  level  on 
the  western  slopes  of  the  extreme  north-west,  which  in- 
creases in  width  from  south  to  north  and  from  east  to  west. 
It  is  followed  upwards  by  a  pseudo-alpine  belt  of  a  few 
hundred  feet  in  height.  Whether  this  zone  could  not  be 
partially  reclaimed  in  course  of  time  by  modern  scientific 
forestry  is  yet  an  open  question."  Speaking  of  the  western 
Highlands,  he  continues  :  "  In  the  west  we  have  to  deal 
with  an  essentially  pastoral  landscape.  The  whole  of  this 
section  is,  to  a  surprising  degree,  bare  of  forests,  not  from 
any  natural  cause,  but  through  the  agency  of  man.  That 
this  work  of  destruction  has  been  made  easier  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  sub -alpine  zone  a  species  of  forest  tree, 
thoroughly  adapted  to  the  climate,  was  lacking,  is,  however, 
very  likely.  For  the  excess  of  rainfall  and  wind  is  not 
favourable  to  Scots  pine,  the  only  native  timber  of  import- 
ance for  this  zone,  or  to  the  larch,  which,  has  much  the 
same  ecologic  requirements.  Norway  spruce,  silver  fir, 
and  the  Douglas  fir  would,  under  proper  management,  be 
best  suited  to  these  western  hills." 

Prof.  W.  Somerville,  in  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry, 
vii.  144  (1913),  mentions  an  area  of  several  hundred  acres 
of  fine  old  Scots  pine  in  the  Highlands  between  1000  and 
2000  feet  altitude.  He  gives  a  photograph  of  well-grown 
trees   at    1800    feet.     Not   a   single   young  tree  could  be 


PLANTING  OF  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS   115 

found.  This  total  absence  of  pine  seedlings  is  due  to  the 
abundance  of  red  deer,  which  are  even  more  destructive 
than  sheep  to  young  trees.  It  is  probable  that  deer  have 
contributed  to  the  lowering  of  the  timber-line  in  Scotland, 

In  determining  the  height  to  which  plantations  may  be 
carried,  the  altitude,  exposure  to  wind,  and  soil  must  all  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Where  there  are  great  masses  of 
high  mountains,  the  timber-line  is  raised  a  great  deal,  and 
trees  may  be  successfully  planted  up  to  high  elevations. 
This  is  well  seen  in  the  Highlands  of  Central  Scotland, 
where  several  peaks  exceed  4000  feet.  In  Rothiemurchus 
Forest,  in  Strathspey,  which  lies  in  a  basin  enclosed  and 
protected  from  wind  by  the  Cairngorm  Mountains,  native 
Scots  pine  creeps  up  the  hills  to  a  height  of  2000  feet. 
On  the  Ardverikie  estate  in  Inverness-shire  there  are  planta- 
tions of  Scots  pine  and  larch,  on  the  hills  beside  Loch 
Earba,  doing  well  between  1500  and  1700  feet.  The 
highest  wood  in  England  occurs  in  the  Pennine  range. 
This  is  a  plantation  of  300  acres,  at  Ashgill,  lying  to  the 
north-east  of  Cross  Fell,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Pennines 
(2930  feet),  by  which  it  is  sheltered  from  the  prevailing 
wind.  The  elevation  of  the  plantation  varies  from  1250 
feet  along  the  bed  of  the  South  Tyne  to  2000  feet,  the 
highest  point  of  a  shelter  belt  that  was  planted  in  advance 
of  the  main  crop.  The  greater  part  lies  between  1500  and 
1800  feet,  sloping  gradually  towards  the  north-west.  The 
soil  is  glacial  clay  resting  on  limestone,  the  surface  being 
covered  with  a  foot  or  two  of  peat.  The  trees,  which  were 
50  years  old  in  1906,  consist  mainly  of  European  spruce, 
forming  a  thick  even  crop,  and  attaining  36  to  45  feet  in 
height  at  1700  feet,  and  60  to  75  feet  at  1250  feet 
elevation.  The  volume  per  acre  was  3500  cubic  feet  at 
the  higher  altitude,  and  4500  cubic  feet  on  the  side  of  the 
River  South  Tyne.  Mingled  with  the  common  species  there 
were  some  American  white  spruce,  which  had  succeeded 
well  on  the  exposed  margins  at  high  elevations.  This 
remarkable  plantation  is  described  fully  by  Mr.  A.  C, 
Forbes  in  Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xx.  153  (1907),  who 


116  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

estimated  the  average  annual  yield  to  be  60  cubic  feet  per 
acre,  or  a  gross  return  of  30  shillings  per  acre,  spruce 
finding  a  ready  sale  here  at  6d.  per  cubic  foot  as  pit 
timber. 

In  the  Peak  District  a  plantation  of  about  1000  acres, 
lying  in  the  Goyt  Valley,  south-west  of  Taxal,  extends  up 
to  1700  feet  elevation  ;  but  all  the  trees  that  were  planted 
in  exposed  situations  at  high  altitudes  or  on  wet  moorland 
peat  failed  completely.  Beech  is  vigorous  and  healthy  up 
to  1250  feet,  and  conifers  flourish  to  about  1500  feet 
elevation  in  this  plantation.  Spruce  plantations  on  Kerry 
Hill  in  Wales  succeed  fairly  well  up  to  an  elevation  of 
1500  feet. 

On  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  in  Ireland  generally, 
the  timber-line,  owing  to  the  strong  prevailing  wind,  is  con- 
siderably depressed  as  a  rule.  In  the  Wicklow  Mountains 
there  are,  however,  good  conifer  plantations  up  to  1200  feet 
elevation  in  situations  sheltered  from  the  west  wind. 

It  is  often  asserted  that  1000  or  1200  feet  represents 
the  upper  limit  of  profitable  afforestation  ;  but  there  is  no 
definite  line,  as  so  much  depends  on  the  presence  or 
absence  of  shelter  and  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  most 
parts  of  Great  Britain  the  elevation  to  which  plantations 
may  extend  varies  between  1000  and  1500  feet ;  but  in 
the  west  of  Scotland  and  in  the  greater  part  of  Ireland 
there  are  many  localities  where  trees  cannot  be  successfully 
planted  above  700  feet.  Even  in  the  south  of  England 
proximity  to  the  west  coast  makes  plantations  at  a  high 
altitude  unprofitable.  On  Exmoor,  west  of  Porlock,  830 
acres  of  the  Ashley  Combe  estate,  between  1000  and  1400 
feet  elevation,  were  planted  in  1850-1860  with  larch, 
spruce,  and  Scots  pine.  In  1913  the  plantation  was 
reported  to  have  been  a  failure  financially,  500  acres  being 
a  dead  loss,  while  "200  acres  .  .  .  will  never  develop 
into  marketable  timber  and  are  not  worth  more  than  what 
has  been  spent  on  them  in  cleaning,  thinning,  etc.,  without 
reckoning  anything  for  the  cost  of  planting  and  rent  of  land. 
Only  100  acres  in  the  most  favoured  situations  have  given 


PLANTING  OF  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  117 

a  good  return  for  the  original  outlay  upon  them."  See 
letter  from  the  agents  of  this  estate  in  The  Times,  I7th 
December  1913. 

In  comparison  with  continental  regions  in  Europe  or 
America,  it  is  remarkable  the  low  altitude  to  which  any 
kind  of  cultivation,  whether  farming,  grazing,  or  forestry, 
can  be  carried  in  the  British  Isles.  This  is  always  a  subject 
of  wonder  to  foreign  visitors.  Fortunately,  however,  the 
area  at  high  elevations  is  not  a  great  percentage  of  the 
total  area.  In  Great  Britain,  of  the  total  area  (excluding 
water)  of  56,199,980  acres  only  3,537,172  acres,  or  6-3 
per  cent,  is  over  1500  feet  elevation.  The  proportion  is 
greatest  in  Scotland,  with  a  total  area  of  19,069,674  acres, 
of  which  2,642,529  acres,  or  13 '3  per  cent,  is  over  1500 
feet.  In  Ireland,  of  a  total  area  of  32,502  square  miles, 
only  1672  square  miles,  or  a  little  over  5  per  cent,  is 
above  1000  feet  altitude. 

The  division  of  the  country  into  three  distinct  zones 
(Fig.  13)  of  vegetation,  the  nature  of  which  has  been 
discussed  at  length  in  the  preceding  pages,  leads  to  certain 
conclusions  of  some  economic  interest.  These  may  be  thus 
summarised : 

1.  In  the  upper  zone,  that  of  the  moors,  no  cultivation 
of  any  kind  is  possible,  or  at  any  rate  profitable.  The  land 
may  be  cheerfully  resigned  to  the  sportsman  and  the 
tourist.  It  gives  in  grouse,  in  deer,  and  in  recreation  a 
considerable  return. 

2.  In  the  middle  zone,  that  of  hill  pasture,  two  in- 
dustries are  possible — grazing  and  growing  timber.  Their 
interests  need  not  clash.  The  shelter  to  adjoining  pasture 
afforded  by  plantations  is  worth  more  to  the  grazier  than  the 
possession  of  the  ground  which  the  trees  cover.  Further- 
more, plantations  may  actually  add  to  the  grazing  area.  In 
larch  and  other  conifer  plantations  on  poor  mountain  land, 
which  have  reached  20  or  30  years  old,  there  is  often 
an  undergrowth  of  grass,  superior  in  quality  to  the  scanty 
rough  herbage  outside.  Sheep  and  cattle  may  be  admitted 
into  these  plantations.     This  extra  grazing   and  the    pro- 


118  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

tection  of  the  trees  are  equivalent  to  an  increase  in  the 
acreage  of  the  land  on  which  stock  can  be  kept  during 
winter.  At  Achnacarry  weak  ewes  are  habitually  wintered 
in  Lochiel's  larch  woods,  with  satisfactory  results.  The 
useless  bracken  areas  can  also  be  planted  up.  In  short,  the 
shepherd  actually  increases  the  numbers  of  his  flock  by 
surrendering  part  of  the  hill  pasture  land  to  the  planter. 
An  actual  survey  will  readily  demarcate  the  land  in  the 
hill  pasture  zone  suitable  for  planting,  and  the  land  that  is 
best  fitted  for  grazing.  The  demarcation  should  be  based 
entirely  on  economic  lines.  Areas  on  which  there  is  no 
prospect  of  growing  trees  profitably  should  be  left  alone. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  combination 
of  grassland  and  woodland  utilises  much  better  than  graz- 
ing alone  the  hill  pasture  zone,  and  really  diminishes  the 
amount  of  waste  land.  Some  attention  is  now  being  paid 
in  England  to  the  neglected  agricultural  problem — the 
improvement  of  the  poor  hill  pasture.  Various  remedies 
are  discussed  in  Board  of  Agricultm^e  Leaflet,  No.  275,  but 
a  most  important  measure,  the  provision  of  shelter  by 
trees,  is  not  mentioned.  The  agriculturist  still  looks  upon 
the  forester  as  an  enemy  or  as  a  faddist.  Concerning  the 
mutual  benefit  and  relationship  between  pasture  and 
forestry,  see  the  remarkable  study,  "  The  Forest  Survey  of 
Glen  Mor,"  published  in  Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  vol. 
XXV.  (1911). 

3.  The  agrarian  or  lower  zone  in  great  part  is  claimed 
by  agriculture.  The  upland  farmer  profits  largely  by  the 
establishment  of  woodland  in  the  neighbouring  hills.  The 
timber  and  fuel  which  he  needs  are  much  diminished  in 
price  ;  and  when  the  time  for  felling  arrives,  the  sawmills 
and  woodworking  industries  that  may  be  installed  will 
enhance  the  value  of  his  produce.  As  the  shelter  of  the 
woods  increases  he  extends  his  cultivation  upwards,  reclaim- 
ing, bit  by  bit  and  year  by  year,  the  lower  and  better 
portions  of  the  hill  pasture. 


CHAPTER    IX 

TREES    FOR    WATER    CATCHMENT    AREAS    AND    FOR 
GENERAL    PLANTING 

Of  equal  importance  with  the  selection  of  suitable  situa- 
tions for  planting  is  the  proper  choice  of  species.  A  great 
many  kinds  of  trees  have  been  tried  in  the  British  Isles ; 
and  so  much  information  has  been  amassed  concerning  them 
that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  assigning  to  each  species  its 
exact  value  as  a  forest  tree  in  this  country.  Some  species 
are  of  especial  value  for  shelter.  Others  are  suitable  for 
the  formation  of  a  protection  zone  at  high  altitudes.  A  few- 
species,  producing  timber  in  a  short  period  of  years  in  great 
quantity  and  of  good  quality,  are  fitted  to  constitute  the 
main  crop.  In  any  planting  scheme  regard  must  be  paid  to 
the  varying  requirements  of  each  species  on  soil  and  situation. 
Conifers  are  chosen  in  the  main  for  new  plantations  on 
account  of  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  planted,  and 
because,  as  a  rule,  they  yield  large  returns  and  can  be 
grown  on  short  rotations.  Nevertheless,  there  is  always 
room  for  valuable  broad -leaved  species.  The  ash,  for 
example,  should  be  planted  in  small  groups  on  patches  of 
good  soil,  such  as  occur  in  valleys  and  near  streams.  The 
importance  of  the  beech  must  always  be  recognised,  on 
account  of  the  improvement  of  the  soil  which  it  effects  by 
its  great  shade  and  abundant  leaf-fall.  It  kills  the  grass, 
the  great  enemy  to  tree  growth;  and,  mixed  with  main- 
crop  trees,  it  stimulates  their  vigour  and  increases  their 
production  of  timber. 

119 


120  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Extensive  plantations  of  conifers  are  liable  to  wide- 
spreading  attacks  of  fungi  and  insects,  and  to  great  damage 
from  gales  and  fire.  It  is  advisable,  then,  to  interrupt  the 
continuity  of  great  areas  of  conifers  by  planting,  at  suitable 
distances,  wide  bands  of  broad-leaved  trees.  Beech  is  the 
most  suitable  species  for  this  purpose  ;  but  ash,  sycamore, 
wych  elm,  alder,  etc.,  may  be  added  in  varying  proportions 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  influence  of 
broad-leaved  trees  is  manifold.  Judiciously  distributed  in 
belts  or  in  groups  they  act  as  wind-breaks ;  they  are 
visited  by  birds  which  prey  upon  noxious  insects  ;  and  the 
humus,  due  to  their  decaying  leaves,  brings  health  and 
vigour  to  the  coniferous  tracts.  Broad-leaved  trees  may 
also  be  planted  along  the  rides,  rowan  and  grey  alder  being 
of  use  at  high  elevations. 

We  are  not  limited  in  our  choice  of  species  to  our  few 
native  trees.  These  are  late  immigrants  from  the  Continent 
after  the  glacial  epoch,  and  are  by  no  means  the  trees  that 
are  most  suitable  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  present 
day,  or  that  are  most  fit  for  producing,  as  quickly  as 
possible,  valuable  timber. 

The  Scots  pine,  our  solitary  native  conifer  of  forest  im- 
portance, was  widely  spread  over  the  British  Isles  in  the 
dry,  warm,  continental  climate  that  prevailed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  neolithic  period  ;  but  it  has,  with  the  advent  of 
our  present  humid,  cool  climate,  gradually  disappeared  from 
all  parts  of  the  country,  except  in  the  mountain  massif  of 
the  Scottish  Highlands.  It  is  most  suitable  for  districts 
characterised  by  a  low  annual  rainfall  and  much  sun  in 
late  summer  and  autumn,  as  in  Speyside,  Deeside,  and  Tay- 
side  in  the  north,  and  in  the  sandy  heaths  of  the  south  and 
east  of  England.  In  such  districts  it  regenerates  itself 
freely,  and  attains  a  great  height,  producing  a  satisfactory 
volume  of  timber  of  good  quality. 

Fortunately  we  are  not  restricted  to  native  trees.  Dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century,  spruce,  silver  fir,  and  larch  from 
the  Continent  began  to  be  largely  used  in  our  plantations. 
The  movement  towards  extensive  use  of  exotic  trees  was 


TEEES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS     121 

accelerated  by  the  discovery,  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  of  the  trees  of  the  Pacific  Coast  region  of 
North  America,  where,  in  a  climate  absolutely  similar  to 
our  own,  the  highest  and  most  valuable  type  of  coniferous 
forest  on  the  planet  has  been  evolved.  The  Douglas  fir, 
Sitka  spruce,  Abies  nohilis  and  grandis,  Thuya  gigantea, 
Fimis  insignis,  and  Cupressus  macrocarpa  are  perhaps  the 
most  important  trees  from  this  region.  From  Asia  we  have 
introduced  the  Japanese  larch. 

There  are  numerous  other  trees,  which  are  occasionally 
used  in  our  plantations,  but  scarcely  any  promise  to  be  of 
real  value.  In  fact,  the  pursuit  of  new  species  is  over  as 
regards  commercial  forestry.  We  have  all  the  wild  species 
that  we  need.  It  is  different  with  regard  to  trees  of  hybrid 
origin.  Eemarkable  fastness  of  growth,  far  surpassing  that 
of  wild  species  of  the  same  genus,  is  shown  by  certain 
hybrids  of  the  first  generation,  or  so-called  '  first  crosses.' 
Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  black  Italian  poplar, 
cricket-bat  willow,  and  London  plane,  all  hybrid  trees  which 
originated  as  chance  seedlings.  Fast-growing  hybrids  of 
trees  like  ash,  walnut,  oak,  etc.,  if  they  could  be  produced 
by  artificial  cross-pollination,  would  be  invaluable ;  and 
efforts  to  make  such  hybrids  have  been  attempted.  One  of 
the  most  interesting  of  these  artificially  made  trees  is  a  new 
hybrid  poplar,  Popuhis  generosa,  produced  at  Kew  in  1912 
(see  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  Ivi.  p.  257  (1914)).  As  to  the 
quality  of  the  wood  of  these  hybrid  trees,  I  may  quote  from 
my  article  on  "  The  Artificial  Production  of  Vigorous 
Trees,"  in  Journ.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Ireland,  xv.  p.  42 
(1915): 

"  It  is  a  popular  belief  that  fast-grown  timber  is  neces- 
sarily soft  and  comparatively  worthless.  This  is  a  fact  in 
most  conifers  ;  but  in  one  class  of  broad-leaf  trees,  the  wood 
of  which  is  characterised  by  large  pores  in  the  inner  part  of 
the  annual  ring,  the  contrary  is  true,  as  the  faster  the  timber 
of  these  trees  is  grown  the  stronger  and  denser  it  becomes. 
This  class  includes  oak,  ash,  chestnut,  hickory,  and  walnut, 
the  species,  in  fact,  that  par  excellence  produce  the  most 


122  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

valuable  timber.  In  countries  like  our  own  the  only  hope 
of  salvation  for  forestry  is  in  growing  timber  rapidly ;  and 
we  have  been  helped  in  that  by  the  introduction  of  fast- 
growing  conifers  like  the  larch,  the  Corsican  pine,  and  the 
Douglas  fir.  But  it  is  essential  to  grow  the  more  valuable 
classes  of  non-coniferous  timber.  The  difficulty  of  growing 
ordinary  species  of  oak,  ash,  and  walnut  is  the  long  period 
required  for  their  maturity,  which  renders  hopeless,  except 
on  the  best  soils,  all  chance  of  an  adequate  financial  return. 
Without  vigorous  first-crosses,  the  mosfc  valuable  classes  of 
timbers  can  only  be  grown  in  limited  quantity." 

As  we  are  largely  dependent  on  exotic  trees  for  the 
success  of  our  plantations,  the  proper  selection  of  seed  is  a 
matter  of  primary  importance.  The  seed  from  which  young 
trees  are  raised  should  be  gathered  from  the  best  trees  in 
the  best  localities.  Species,  if  widely  distributed,  are  not 
uniform  over  the  whole  territory  which  they  inhabit,  but 
consist  of  few  or  many  distinct  races,  each  confined  to  its 
own  district.  These  races  vary  much  in  their  qualities. 
It  is  well  known  how  superior  in  vigour  the  Douglas  fir, 
growing  close  to  the  Pacific  coast,  is  to  the  same  species 
growing  in  the  mountains  far  inland.  The  larch  at  high 
altitudes  in  the  Tyrol  is  inferior  to  the  larch  growing  in 
the  lower  Swiss  valleys.  Seed  from  straight  well-grown 
trees  should  always  be  selected,  and  that  from  suppressed 
or  crooked-stemmed  trees  be  avoided.  Commercial  seed  is 
often  collected  from  inferior  trees  ;  and  the  establishment 
of  seed-collecting  stations  by  the  Forest  Services  of  Canada 
and  of  the  United  States,  in  British  Columbia,  Washington, 
and  Oregon,  would  be  a  great  boon  to  sylviculture  in  this 
country. 

The  principal  forest  trees  will  now  be  briefly  considered, 
with  special  reference  to  their  adaptability  to  different 
conditions  of  soil  and  situation.  The  conifers  being  the 
most  important  class  for  planting  in  water  catchment  areas 
will  be  first  dealt  with. 


TEEES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    123 

Conifers 

Scots  Pine. — As  mentioned  above,  this  is  now  the  only 
native  conifer  used  in  planting.  Wild  forests  of  Scots  pine 
exist  in  Inverness-shire  and  Perthshire,  occupying  the  heaths, 
which  are  tracts  of  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  covered  with  a 
thin  layer  of  peat  and  carrying  a  thick  vegetation  of 
heather.  These  forests  and  also  plantations  of  Scots  pine 
occasionally  ascend  up  to  1800  feet  elevation,  but  only  in 
very  sheltered  localities.  Originally  planted  in  the  south 
of  England,  Scots  pine  spreads  itself  naturally  and  freely 
over  the  heaths  of  the  Bagshot  Sands  and  Lower  Greensand, 
and  also  sows  itself  on  the  heaths  of  East  Anglia  and 
North-east  Yorkshire.  Scots  pine  develops  a  deep  tap-root, 
and  in  consequence  should  never  be  planted  on  shallow  soil, 
on  which  its  growth  remains  always  stunted.  At  high 
elevations  it  is  liable  to  snow-break.  It  is  most  suitable 
for  pure  sands,  loamy  sands  and  gravels  of  considerable 
depth,  and  should  not  be  grown  on  rich  soils,  as  it  then 
produces  wide-ringed  soft  timber  of  little  value.  It  thrives 
on  lowland  peat,  if  this  is  drained ;  but  on  wild  undrained 
peat  soon  ceases  to  grow,  or  remains  a  stunted,  useless  tree. 
As  a  main-crop  tree  it  should  be  planted  close  and  grown 
pure,  and  be  thinned  lightly  only,  as  in  this  way  the  stems 
are  readily  cleaned,  and  the  ground  kept  protected.  Grown 
in  mixture  with  other  trees  it  is  liable  to  be  suppressed  by 
faster-growing  species,  and  such  suppressed  stems  are  of  no 
value  as  thinnings ;  or  if  it  holds  its  own,  it  retains  its 
branches  and  produces  coarse  and  knotty  timber.  Grown 
on  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  at  moderate  elevations  it  pro- 
duces timber  of  excellent  quality,  the  average  yield  in  good 
situations  being  70  cubic  feet  per  annum.  The  follow- 
ing measurements  were  taken  by  Messrs.  E.  E.  Burdon 
and  A.  P.  Long :  A  plot  of  Scots  pine,  on  good  deep 
sandy  loam  at  Woburn,  95  years  old,  with  176  trees  to 
the  acre  averaging  88  feet  high,  contained  6391  cubic  feet 
of  timber  (quarter  girth  measurement  under  bark),  equiva- 
lent to  an  average  annual  increment  of  67  cubic  feet  per 


124  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

acre.  Another  plot  on  poor  but  deep  sandy  soil,  with  some 
iron  pan,  on  the  Gay  wood,  Estate,  King's  Lynn,  91  years  old, 
216  trees  per  acre,  65  feet  high,  contained  4733  cubic 
feet  (quarter  girth  measurement  under  bark),  equal  to  an 
average  annual  increment  of  5  2  cubic  feet  per  acre. 

Corsican  Pine. — This  species  is  a  much  more  vigorous 
tree  than  Scots  pine  in  most  parts  of  the  British  Isles.  On 
the  sandy  heaths  of  Surrey,  Sussex,  Hampshire,  and  Dorset 
it  produces  a  considerably  larger  volume  of  timber,  probably 
as  much  as  90  cubic  feet  per  acre  per  annum,  for  the  first 
forty  years  on  the  best  sites.  It  grows  freely  in  dry  situa- 
tions and  on  soil  containing  lime,  and  even  succeeds  on  clay. 
It  bears  drought  well,  thriving  on  a  grassy  hill  with  a  south 
exposure  in  Somerset,  where  beech  and  larch  had  died. 
This  is  due  to  the  thick  layer  of  humus  produced  by  the 
leaf-fall  of  this  pine,  which  keeps  the  soil  cool  and  moist. 
Having  a  deep  root-system  it  is  very  storm-firm,  and 
resisted  better  than  any  other  conifer  the  gale  of  December 
1913,  when  over  a  million  trees  were  blown  down  in 
Perthshire  and  Forfarshire.  It  bears  the  constant  prevail- 
ing wind  well,  and  on  this  account  is  valuable  for  planting 
in  shelter  belts  near  the  sea  and  in  hilly  districts.  Cor- 
sican pine  succeeded  better  on  sand-dunes  at  Holkham, 
Norfolk,  than  any  other  species,  producing  natural  seedlings 
in  great  abundance,  many  of  which  are  now  as  tall  as  the 
parent  trees,  attaining  30  to  35  feet  in  height  in  twenty 
years.  The  tree  helps  materially  in  defence  against  sea- 
erosion.  See  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  ii.  107  (1908). 
Corsican  pine  also  proved  much  more  successful  than  Scots 
pine  on  the  sand-dunes  at  Culbin,  Morayshire,  "  owing  to 
its  adaptability  for  growing  on  sand  and  to  its  power  of 
resisting  wind."  See  Trans.  Boy.  Scot.  Arhor.  Soc.  xxix. 
25  (1915). 

Plantations  of  Corsican  pine  on  exposed  sites  in  Wig- 
townshire and  in  Wales  produce  a  considerable  volume  of 
timber,  the  height  growth  being  about  50  feet  at  the  end 
of  forty  years.     On    the    Healey  Estate,  Northumberland, 


TREES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    125 

a  pure  plantation,  50  years  old  in  1911,  had  325  trees, 
50  to  60  feet  in  height,  with  a  volume  of  3790  cubic  feet 
per  acre,  or  an  average  annual  increment  of  76  cubic  feet 
per  acre  {Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  v.  350  (1911)). 
At  high  elevations  this  tree  suffers  little  from  snow,  but  is 
not  so  useful  as  the  spruce.  It  is  not  usually  injured  by 
rabbits,  and  is  remarkably  free  from  insect  and  fungus 
attacks,  the  only  recorded  case  of  disease  being  an  attack  of 
Peziza,  reported  in  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  vii.  287. 
It  produces  heartwood  at  a  late  period ;  but  the  timber  of 
young  trees,  though  all  sapwood,  is  heavy,  tough,  and 
resinous,  and  can  be  used  on  estates  for  the  same  purposes 
as  larch.  Its  wood  is  very  durable,  a  vinery  door  made  of 
it  at  Bayfordbury  showing  no  signs  of  decay  after  exposure 
to  the  weather  for  twenty-two  years.  Its  cylindrical  and 
straight  stems  make  it  very  suitable  for  pit-wood,  and  it 
was  freely  bought  for  this  purpose  near  Swansea  in  1905. 

A  remarkable  instance  of  the  capacity  of  this  pine  for 
producing  a  large  amount  of  timber  on  poor  dry  soil  in 
Dorset  is  given  in  Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xxiv.  46 
(1911).  Here  planted  very  close  (only  1|-  feet  apart),  it 
kept  the  soil  moist  with  a  dense  layer  of  humus,  and  far 
surpassed  Scots  pine  in  health  and  vigour.  It  succeeds 
remarkably  well  in  the  sandy  tracts  of  Surrey.  See  Gardeners' 
Chronicle,  xliii.  406  (1908).  The  only  objection  to  the 
extended  use  of  this  tree  is  the  difficulty  of  moving  it  out 
of  the  nursery.  To  obviate  this,  the  seedlings  should  be 
transplanted  at  one  year  old,  and  be  moved  every  year  till 
ready  for  planting  out. 

Austrian  Pine. — This  is  an  inferior  tree  in  all  respects 
to  the  Corsican  pine,  and  is  of  little  value  in  plantations, 
the  timber  which  it  produces  being  coarse,  rough,  and 
knotty.  It  is  used  for  shelter  belts  near  the  sea-coast  and 
on  windy  exposed  hillsides  of  chalk  or  limestone. 

Maritime  Pine. — This  species  attains  on  sandy  soil  near 
Norwich,  where  it  is  mixed  in  old  plantations  with  Scots 
pine,  about  the  same  volume  per  acre  per  annum  as  the 


126  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

latter  tree ;  but  its  timber  is  inferior.  It  is  entirely  at 
home  on  warm  sandy  tracts  near  Bournemouth,  where  it 
reproduces  itself  freely,  and  attains  a  large  size.  Usually, 
however,  it  is  inferior  in  growth  to  the  Scots  and  Corsican 
pines.  At  Holkham,  on  the  coast  of  Norfolk,  it  does 
not  grow  nearly  so  well  on  the  sand-hills  as  the  Corsican 
and  Austrian  pines.  There  is,  however,  a  flourishing 
plantation  (Fig.  20),  47  years  old  and  nearly  200  acres  in 
extent,  on  the  sheltered  side  of  a  sand-hill  on  the  sea-coast 
at  Mullaghmore  in  Sligo.  This  plantation  has  an  average 
annual  increment  of  about  60  cubic  feet  of  timber  per  acre. 
At  Abbeyleix  this  species  has  been  cheaply  established  on 
a  drained  lowland  peat-bog  (Figs.  18  and  19)  by  sowing  the 
seeds  in  situ,  (see  p.  19).  It  bears  wind  well  in  the 
milder  parts  of  the  kingdom,  as  on  the  west  coast  of 
Ireland  and  on  the  south  coast  of  England ;  but  inland  or 
at  a  considerable  elevation  the  tree  is  usually  a  failure,  the 
stems  being  curved  and  shortened  by  the  wind.  The  use  of 
the  tree  is  distinctly  limited  to  the  afforestation  of  sand- 
dunes  and  of  certain  types  of  lowland  bogs,  where  most  of 
the  peat  has  been  removed  for  fuel. 

Pinus  Montana. — This  species,  of  which  there  are  three 
main  varieties,  occurs  naturally  at  high  elevations  in  the 
Alps,  Pyrenees,  and  other  mountains  of  Central  Europe. 
The  dwarf  form  (var.  pumilio)  is  a  creeping  shrub  of  no 
sylvicultural  interest.  The  intermediate  form  (var.  rostrata) 
is  a  small  tree,  not  exceeding  3  0  feet  in  height,  with  several 
stems  arising  close  to  the  ground,  due  to  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  side  branches  which  turn  upwards  and  grow  at 
an  equal  pace  with  the  leader.  This  form  has  been  largely 
planted  on  the  heaths  and  dunes  of  Jutland,  where  it  has 
been  found  to  improve  remarkably  the  acid  heath  soil,  and 
render  it  fit  for  the  growth  of  other  species.  It  is  usually 
planted  in  the  dunes  pure  at  first ;  and  afterwards  common 
spruce  is  introduced,  which  without  it  could  not  be  grown 
on  this  poor  soil  covered  with  heather.  The  upright  form 
(var.   uncinata)  is   an  erect  tree  with  a  single   undivided 


Fig.  is.— Maritime  Pine,  three  years  old,  sown  on  bog  at  Ablieyleix. 
(From  Cvuntrii  Life,  ■22nd  April  1P16.) 


11'.— .Maritime  Fine,  five  years  old,  sown  on  bog  at  Abbeyleix. 
(From  Country  Life,  22iii.l  April  it'lG.) 


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^. 


TREES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    127 

stem,  attaining  30  to  70  feet  in  height,  but  slow  in  growth. 
It  is  extremely  hardy,  suffering  little  from  snow,  and  occurs 
at  high  elevations  on  the  poorest  soil.  Both  these  forms 
of  Pinus  montana  grow  better  in  wild,  wet,  undraiued  bog 
than  any  other  species ;  but  in  such  circumstances  their 
growth  is  very  slow.  At  Knockboy,  Connemara,  490  acres 
of  peat,  at  no  great  elevation,  but  fully  exposed  to  the  west 
wind,  were  planted  in  1891—1894  with  over  two  million 
trees,  comprising  16  broad-leaved  species  and  ten  conifers. 
Practically  none  of  these  survive,  except  two  species — Pinus 
montana,  which  has  thriven  over  the  whole  area,  but  had 
attained  only  6  feet  in  height  in  1915,  and  maritime  pine, 
of  which  there  were  a  few  groups  about  20  feet  high. 

Neither  form  can  ever  be  expected  to  attain  a  useful 
size  or  be  grown  commercially  in  this  country.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that  Pinus  montana  may  be  of  considerable 
value  in  the  heather  zone  on  exposed  sites,  in  mixture 
with  Sitka  spruce,  Corsican  pine,  or  silver  fir.  It  would 
greatly  improve  the  peaty  soil  by  its  decaying  leaves, 
producing  good  humus,  which  would  favour  the  growth  of 
the  other  species.  Its  dense  foliage,  persisting  on  the 
branches  five  to  ten  years,  also  protects  the  soil.  It  has 
been  tried  of  late  years  on  high  moorland  at  Corrour  in 
Inverness-shire ;  and  reference  may  be  made  to  articles  by 
Sir  John  Stirling  Maxwell  in  Trans.  Boy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc. 
XX.  6  (1907),  xxi.  1-15  (1908),  xxiii.'l57  (1910),  and 
xxviii.  77  (1914).  See  also  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry, 
x.  126  (1916).  Pinus  montana  may  also  be  used  in 
mixture  with  other  trees  in  shelter  belts  on  wet  peaty  soils. 

Pinus  Insignis,  a  native  of  Monterey  in  California, 
makes  remarkably  fast  growth  in  the  milder  parts  of 
England,  Wales,  Ireland,  and  south-west  Scotland.  This 
vigour,  often  an  increase  of  three  feet  in  height  annually,  is 
kept  up  on  the  poorest  soils,  provided  the  situation  is  a 
mild  one  near  the  sea-coast.  In  inland  places  the  young 
shoots  are  often  injured  by  frost ;  and  in  exposed  cold 
situations  trees  may  be  killed  outright  during  exceptionally 


128  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

severe  seasons.  In  a  plantation  of  this  species  formed  at 
Muckross,  near  Killarney,  in  1876,  a  considerable  number 
of  trees  were  killed  in  the  very  cold  winter  of  1908-1909. 
In  the  few  plantations  that  have  been  made  in  these 
islands,  the  trees  are  extremely  coarse  and  the  quality  of 
the  timber  very  inferior ;  but  the  quantity  produced  is 
probably  as  much  as  200  cubic  feet  per  acre  annually. 
Planted  pure  in  close  order,  Finns  insignis  would  probably 
produce  pit  timb/er  that  would  be  highly  remunerative  in 
suitable  localities.  The  main  value  of  this  species  lies, 
however,  in  its  use  for  shelter  near  the  sea,  where  it  might 
give  protection  to  valuable  plantations  of  other  trees.  Its 
rapid  growth  and  dense  habit  adapt  it  well  for  this  purpose. 
In  Cornwall  it  stands  erect  and  uninjured  in  places  where 
Cupressus  macrocarpa  is  badly  cut  by  the  wind ;  and  it 
much  exceeds  in  height  the  maritime  pine  on  the  sea-coast. 
It  is  very  successful  as  a  wind-break  in  the  most  exposed 
localities  in  the  Scilly  Isles.  The  seedlings  should  be 
transplanted  annually  for  the  first  two  seasons,  and  be 
planted  out  in  the  third  year.  October  is  preferred  for 
these  operations  in  the  Scilly  Isles.  Pinus  insignis  will 
succeed  in  poor,  dry,  and  stony  soils  ;  but  is  a  failure  in  wet 
soils  and  in  soils  containing  more  than  a  very  small  per- 
centage of  lime.  For  a  shelter  belt,  a  double  or  triple 
row,  planted  quincunx  fashion,  will  usually  be  sufficient. 

Silver  Fir. — The  common  silver  fir,  Abies  pectinata,  is  a 
native  of  Central  Europe,  and  is  the  most  important  species 
of  the  genus  for  planting  in  this  country.  Abies  grandis 
and  Abies  nobilis,  natives  of  Western  North  America,  are 
also  worthy  of  notice,  and  will  be  spoken  of  later. 

The  common  silver  fir  produces  an  enormous  quantity 
of  timber,  but  is  not  ripe  for  felling  at  so  early  an  age  as 
larch,  Scots  pine,  Sitka  spruce,  and  Douglas  fir.  It  is 
nevertheless  an  excellent  main-crop  tree,  which  has  been 
much  neglected  in  this  country.  On  the  Continent  it 
inhabits  the  lower  zone  of  the  mountains  where  the  rainfall 
is  high,  60  to  80  inches  annually,  and  the  soil  is  fairly  deep. 


TEEES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    129 

In  the  west  of  Scotland,  Wales,  south-west  England,  and 
Ireland  it  is  at  home  from  sea-level  up  to  1000  or  1200 
feet  elevation ;  and  is  adapted  for  the  zone  of  hill  pasture 
wherever  the  soil  is  moderately  deep.  It  is  not  suited 
for  the  heather  moor  or  heaths,  where  pine  and  larch  are 
the  successful  species.  Silver  fir  is  a  good  wind-resister, 
and  attains  a  greater  height  in  the  teeth  of  the  wind, 
whether  inland  or  close  to  the  sea,  than  any  other  species. 
This  great  height -growth  enables  it  to  produce  a  large 
volume  of  timber  in  moderately  exposed  situations.  Used 
as  a  shelter  belt  in  wind-swept  districts,  it  will  protect 
other  species  planted  in  masses  to  leeward  and  greatly 
augment  their  production  of  timber.  Shelter  belts  of  silver 
fir  mixed  with  beech  would  also  greatly  improve  pasture 
lands  in  the  west  of  Ireland,  Wales,  etc. 

In  the  young  state  silver  fir  is  liable  to  spring  frost, 
and  on  that  account  may  occasionally  require  the  protection 
of  nurses  in  its  early  stage ;  and  for  this  purpose  hornbeam 
or  birch  may  be  used,  planted  either  with  the  silver  fir  or 
one  or  two  years  previously.  Silver  fir  may  be  planted 
pure  or  mixed  with  beech  or  spruce ;  and  for  many  years 
should  be  kept  dense  on  the  ground  in  order  to  produce 
well-shaped  clean  stems. 

In  Ireland  silver  fir  scattered  in  mixed  woods  regener- 
ates itself  very  freely,  as  the  seedlings  spring  up  in  great 
numbers  amid  the  ordinary  woodland  herbs,  and  grow  well 
in  the  partial  shade.  Shelter  belts  and  plantations  of 
silver  fir  mixed  with  beech,  sycamore,  and  ash  could  always  be 
naturally  regenerated,  and  would  often  be  very  remunerative. 

The  timber  ordinarily  produced  by  silver  fir  in  this 
country  has  been  rough,  branched,  and  knotty,  as  it  was 
usually  thinned  too  early  or  mixed  with  unsuitable  species 
like  Scots  pine.  Grown  in  complete  canopy,  it  produces 
an  extraordinary  volume  of  timber,  only  surpassed  in  this 
respect  by  Douglas  fir  and  Sitka  spruce.  On  favourable 
sites  100  to  120  cubic  feet  per  acre  per  annum  may  be 
expected.  Grown  close  the  timber  is  narrow-ringed  and 
of  excellent  quality. 


130  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

On  Deeside,  according  to  Mr.  Crozier,  "  the  common 
silver  fir,  formerly  one  of  the  most  reliable  trees,  is  now 
hopelessly  unreliable  as  a  timber  crop  owing  to  its 
susceptibility  to  Chermes.  Old  trees  are  immune  ;  but  the 
difficulty  of  raising  young  stock  is  likely  to  lead  to  its 
extinction  altogether  as  an  economic  species."  This 
difficulty  exists  elsewhere,  but  can  be  overcome.  Young 
plants  should  be  raised  under  shade  in  nurseries  situated  in 
woodlands,  and  when  planted  out  ought  to  be  always 
mixed  with  beech.  In  Wicklow  natural  seedlings  of  silver 
fir  keep  free  from  Chermes,  while  planted  seedlings  close 
by  are  liable  to  attack.  The  attack  occurs  not  long  after 
they  are  planted  out,  the  period  when  their  growth  and 
vigour  are  checked  by  the  act  of  transplantation. 

Abies  grandis. — This  is  the  fastest  in  growth  of  all  the 
silver  firs ;  and  isolated  trees  in  different  parts  of  the 
British  Isles  often  equal  and  sometimes  excel  the  Douglas 
fir  in  vigour.  Associated  with  this  vigour  is  good  health, 
as,  unlike  the  common  silver  fir,  it  is  not  attacked  by 
Chermes,  and  is  not  liable  to  injury  from  frost  in  the  young 
stage.  An  acre  of  this  tree  in  Sussex,  which  was  planted 
in  1900,  had  attained  in  1917  an  average  height  of  35 
feet  and  a  girth  of  21  inches.  The  seedlings  are  easily 
reared,  grow  much  faster  than  those  of  the  common  silver 
fir,  and  may  be  put  out  when  three  years  old  after  being 
transplanted  once.  Abies  grandis  may  be  tried  as  a  main- 
crop  tree  in  localities  where  the  common  silver  fir  is 
difficult  to  establish  on  account  of  Chermes  and  late  frosts. 
It  is  not  known  whether  it  will  resist  wind  as  well  as  the 
common  silver  fir,  and  it  does  not  bear  so  much  shade  as 
the  latter. 

The  timber  in  western  North  America  is  little  known 
commercially ;  but  is  probably  better  than  any  of  the 
other  American  silver  firs  except  Ahies  nolilis.  It  is 
white  and  soft,  yet  firm  enough  to  be  useful. 

Abies  nobilis. — This  species  is  a  mountain  tree  in  western 
North    America,    and    differs    from    Abies   grandis    in    its 


TREES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    131 

climatic  requirements.  It  has  not  proved  very  successful 
as  an  isolated,  ornamental  tree  in  the  milder  parts  of  the 
British  Isles,  being  prone  to  Chermes  attacks,  and  often 
weakened  by  excessive  production  of  cones.  It  is  much 
more  at  home  in  the  colder  parts  of  Scotland,  where  it 
promises  to  be  a  valuable  tree,  as  it  is  quite  unhurt  by  the 
severest  frost  and  is  never  injured  by  the  heaviest  snowfall. 
At  Durris,  Ardverikie,  and  Corrour,  it  is  extremely  hardy 
(Fig.  28)  and  resists  wind  better  than  any  other  conifer. 
Planted  out  on  exposed  sites,  it  has  done  well  even  on 
peaty  soil.  At  Ardverikie  it  is  the  most  vigorous  of  all 
the  trees  that  have  been  planted  there,  enjoying  immunity 
from  fungus  and  insect  attacks  and  producing  natural 
seedlings  in  great  abundance.  Seedlings  raised  at  Durris 
and  Ardverikie  from  home-grown  seed  are  very  vigorous. 
It  does  not  bear  much  shade,  and  fails  where  there  is  lime 
in  the  soil.  In  its  own  home  it  produces  the  most 
valuable  timber  of  all  the  American  silver  firs,  the  wood 
being  heavy,  hard,  and  firm,  and  working  easily  and  well. 
At  Durris  the  wood  is  white  and  soft,  but  closer  in  the 
grain  than  that  of  Abies  grandis. 

This  species  should  be  planted  pure  in  the  protection 
zone,  when  this  is  pushed  high  up  in  the  heather  moor. 
In  this  way  in  the  west  of  Scotland  it  may  be  planted  up 
to  1200  or  1300  feet,  making  a  useful  belt  above  the 
limit  of  the  main-crop  trees.  It  seems  to  be  the  most 
suitable  species  for  use  in  an  attempt  to  raise  the  timber- 
line  on  exposed  sites  on  peat  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland 
and  in  the  west  of  Ireland.  Useful  in  this  way  at  high 
altitudes  it  should  never  be  planted  at  low  elevations.  At 
Craigo,  near  Montrose,  not  far  from  the  coast  at  a  low 
elevation  a  plantation  of  six  acres  of  this  species,  40  years 
old,  shows  only  moderate  growth,  the  trees  being  about 
46  feet  high  by  4  feet  in  girth. 

Douglas  Fir. — This  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  tree 
that  has  been  introduced.  It  produces  an  enormous  volume 
of  excellent  timber,  and  comes  to  maturity  in  a  short  term 


132  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

of  years,  being  ready  for  felling  at  50  to  60  years  old, 
or  even  less.  It  is  suitable  for  all  parts  of  the  country  in 
selected  sites.  It  suffers  from  the  wind  in  exposed  situations, 
and  does  not  thrive  in  soils  containing  more  than  2  per  cent 
of  lime  or  on  wet  soils.  It  grows  well  enough  at  high 
elevations,  but  only  in  shelter,  succeeding  in  Wales  in 
favoured  spots  up  to  1250  feet  elevation.  On  wet 
soils  it  is  very  liable  to  be  thrown  down  by  the  wind.  In 
the  young  stage  it  is  liable  to  injury  from  frost,  and  is 
readily  attacked  by  rabbits.  These  are  its  sole  drawbacks. 
It  is  a  splendid  main-crop  tree  for  sheltered  situations 
either  in  the  lowlands  or  high  up  in  valleys  in  the  hill 
pasture  zone,  where  the  soil  is  moderately  deep  and  not  too 
wet.  It  will  grow  fairly  well  on  shallow  soil,  but  then 
makes  superficial  roots  and  is  liable  to  be  blown  down  by 
the  wind.  It  produces  a  fair  amount  of  good  seed  in  this 
country,  and  in  many  places,  as  in  the  New  Forest, 
regenerates  itself  freely.  At  Dunster,  Somerset,  self-sown 
seedlings,  up  to  35  feet  high,  occur  scattered  about  the 
estate. 

The  yields  from  various  plantations,  published  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  1913-1914,  may  be 
summarised  as  follows,  the  volumes  given  being  quarter- 
girth  measurement  over  bark : 

Taymount  plantation,  Perthshire,  9 '6 9   acres,  52  years 

planted;    average  height,  88  feet;    volume,  6040 

cubic  feet  per  acre ;   annual  increment,  116  cubic 

feet  per  acre.     (See  Fig.  21.) 
Cochwillan  plantation,  Carnarvon,  0*42  acres,  58  years 

planted;  average  height,  101  feet;  volume,  12,040 

cubic  feet  per  acre;  annual  increment,  208  cubic 

feet  per  acre. 
Llandinam  plantation,  Montgomery,  3^  acres,  28  years 

planted;    average   height,  66   feet;    volume,   5563 

cubic  feet  per  acre;  annual  increment,  199  cubic 

feet  per  acre. 
Tortworth,  Gloucester,   1*02   acres,    43  years   planted; 

average  height,   97  feet;    volume,  7316  cubic  feet 


FKt.  -Jl. — ^Douglas  Fir  Plantation  at  Tayniuunt. 
(From  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  20th  March  1015.) 


Fig.  22. — Plantation  of  Tsuja  Allcrtiana  at  Mnrthl}'. 
(From  Transactions  Royal  Hcvttlih  Arhorkaltural  Society,  vol.  27.) 


;:;.  -Forest  of  ^Vestnu  Liin 
(From  Couutru  Lifi,  -r-hxl  June 


TEEES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    133 

per  acre;    annual  increment,    17 0   cubic  feet    per 

acre. 
Tortworth,  Gloucester,   2*26    acres,   29   years   planted; 

average  height,  66  feet;    volume,   3690   cubic  feet 

per  acre;     annual  increment,   127    cubic  feet   per 

acre. 
Dunster,    Somerset,    0-84    acres,    33    years    planted; 

average  height,   74  feet;    volume,  4985  cubic  feet 

per  acre ;    annual   increment,   151    cubic  feet  per 

acre. 
The  volume  of  the  Taymount  plantation  (Fig.  21)  is 
much  below  what  it  would  have  been  if  the  trees  had  not 
been  improperly  thinned.  In  fact,  in  all  these  plantations 
the  conditions  have  not  been  ideal,  as  the  trees  in  every 
case  were  planted  much  too  far  apart  or  were  mixed  with 
larch,  which  soon  disappeared,  leaving  the  number  on  the 
ground  insufficient.  The  annual  increment  is  shown  to 
increase  after  the  30th  year,  and  the  tree  is  in  full  vigour 
between  the  50  th  and  60  th  year.  For  a  rotation  of 
50  or  60  years,  the  yield  may  be  estimated  to  vary  from 
150  to  200  cubic  feet  per  annum  per  acre. 

Douglas  fir  should  nearly  always  be  planted  pure,  when 
it  is  used  for  a  main  crop,  as  no  other  species  will  keep 
pace  with  it.  Larch  or  spruce  employed  as  nurses  are 
speedily  suppressed,  (their  thinnings  in  that  case  being  of 
no  value.  In  such  mixtures,  the  lower  branches  of  the 
Douglas  fir  are  not  killed  off  soon  enough,  and  coarse  stems 
and  knotty  timber  result.  When  planted  pure  at  4^  to 
5  feet  apart,  the  young  trees  soon  cover  the  ground  and 
suppress  the  grass ;  while  their  stems  are  cleaned  before 
the  branches  become  too  stout.  More  vigorous  crowns  are 
developed  than  is  the  case  when  closer  planting  is  adopted. 
At  Gairletter,  on  the  Benmore  estate  in  Argyllshire,  a 
plantation,  in  which  Douglas  fir  was  planted  alternately 
with  Thuya  gigantea,  was  very  successful.  The  Thuya, 
though  overtopped  by  its  more  vigorous  companion,  was 
not  suppressed,  and  helped  by  its  dense  shade  to  clean  the 
stems   of  the   Douglas   fir,    while   the   branches   were   still 


134  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

slender.  The  Thuya  also  greatly  improved  the  soil  by  its 
thick  layer  of  decaying  leaves.  Natural  seedlings  of  both 
species  were  very  numerous  and  vigorous  in  open  spaces. 
Partly  blown  down  and  partly  felled,  the  plantation 
yielded,  36  years  after  planting,  7430  cubic  feet  (quarter- 
girth  measurement  under  bark),  or  an  average  annual 
increment  of  over  200  cubic  feet  per  acre.  In  wet  climates, 
as  at  Benmore,  where  the  rainfall  is  over  100  inches,  this 
mixture  of  Douglas  fir  and  Thuya  yigantea  may  be  tried 
with  success. 

Douglas  fir  has  so  far  been  fairly  free  from  insect  or 
fungus  attacks,  but  this  immunity  may  not  continue.  As 
a  precaution,  extensive  continuous  plantations  of  this  tree 
should  be  avoided ;  these  should  be  interspersed  with  belts 
or  clumps  of  beech.  Douglas  fir  is  of  remarkable  utility  in 
what  may  be  called  interplanting,  that  is,  filling  up  gaps 
in  ordinary  woods  that  happen  to  be  thin  and  poorly 
stocked.  It  is  also  invaluable  for  converting  coppice  or 
coppice  with  standards  into  ordinary  high  forest,  as  it  usually 
thrives  on  soils  which  carry  coppice  and  in  a  short  time 
suppresses  by  its  vigorous  growth  the  coppice  shoots. 

Home-grown  timber  of  Douglas  fir  ranks  in  quality 
between  Scots  pine  and  larch ;  but  it  surpasses  both  in 
dimensions,  and  is  more  valuable  than  either  when  properly 
grown  in  dense  plantations.  It  is  equally  durable  with 
larch,  the  proportion  of  heartwood  at  50  years  old  being 
about  70  per  cent.  It  converts  well,  keeping  straight  when 
long  sizes  are  sawn ;  and  if  carefully  stacked  it  dries 
quickly  and  is  not  liable  to  warp.  It  is  somewhat  lighter 
in  weight  than  spruce.  Home  -  grown  timber  has  been 
used  on  the  Scone  estate  for  gates,  doors,  and  fencing ;  and 
was  sold  for  railway  sleepers  and  pit  timber.  Grown  on  a 
long  rotation,  the  timber  will  be  found  suitable  for  carpentry 
and  joinery. 

Common  Spruce. — In  addition  to  the  common  spruce, 
Picea  excelsa,  which  is  a  native  of  continental  Europe,  there 
are   two  other   species  of  the  genus  of  value  to  foresters, 


TKEES  EOK  WATER  CATCHMENT  AKEAS    135 

namely,  the  Sitka  spruce,  Picea  sitchensis,  and  the  white 
spruce,  Picea  alba,  both  natives  of  North  America. 

The  common  spruce  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  trees, 
but  its  cultivation  in  this  country  has  seldom  been  properly 
carried  out.  It  has  often  been  planted  in  unsuitable 
mixtures  upon  low-lying  land ;  and  when  grown  pure  has 
almost  invariably  been  over-thinned.  Its  real  use  is  to 
produce  a  large  volume  of  timber  per  acre  in  hilly  or 
mountainous  districts,  as  it  makes  good  growth  at  altitudes 
where  Scots  pine  and  larch  fail.  In  other  words,  spruce 
is  the  main  tree  for  the  afforestation  of  the  higher  parts  of 
the  hill  pasture  zone.  Spruce  is  a  superficially  rooting 
species,  and  grows  upon  the  thinnest  soil,  provided  there  is 
sufficient  moisture  available  during  the  growing  season. 
At  high  elevations,  where  exposure  to  the  wind  and  little 
depth  of  soil  are  the  chief  obstacles  to  the  growth  of  trees, 
spruce  will  produce  a  considerable  volume  of  timber. 

Spruce  can  be  raised  and  planted  out  with  great  ease 
and  at  a  cheap  rate,  and  it  is  a  very  hardy  tree.  It 
endures  much  shade,  and  when  grown  in  close  order  covers 
the  ground  speedily,  improves  the  soil  by  its  layer  of  decay- 
ing leaves,  and  in  due  time  cleans  its  stem,  and  produces 
timber  of  excellent  quality.  Used  as  a  nurse  for  trees  like 
larch  and  pine,  its  branches  persist  indefinitely,  and  coarse 
timber  with  large  knots  is  the  result.  It  should  be  planted 
pure  as  a  rule,  though  in  some  cases,  as  on  cold  clay  soil,  it 
may  be  mixed  with  hornbeam  or  on  dry  soils  with  beech. 

As  evidence  of  the  considerable  yield  of  spruce  at  high 
elevations,  some  statistics  are  available  in  Journal  of  Board 
of  Agriculture,  xvii.  pp.  265  and  353  (1910),  and  Sup- 
plement No.  9  (1912).  A  shelter  belt  on  the  summit 
of  Kerry  Hill  in  Wales,  fully  exposed  at  1525  feet  eleva- 
tion, the  soil  being  four  inches  of  peat  on  yellow  loam,  had 
a  volume  of  timber  of  2880  to  3160  cubic  feet  (quarter- 
girth  measurement)  per  acre,  corresponding  to  an  annual 
increment  of  70  to  75  cubic  feet  per  acre.  At  1400  feet 
elevation  with  less  exposure,  the  soil  being  shallow  loam,  a 
plot    43    years    old    had    a    volume   of    3870    cubic    feet 


136  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

per  acre,  corresponding  to  an  annual  increment  of  90  cubic 
feet  per  acre.  At  1020  feet  elevation,  in  a  sheltered 
situation  on  good  damp  soil,  the  volume  of  a  plot  43 
years  old  amounted  to  5610  cubic  feet,  or  an  annual 
increment  of  130  cubic  feet  per  acre. 

In  the  Coombe  Plantation  at  Keswick  isolated  trees  of 
spruce  varied  in  height  from  48  feet  at  1450  feet  elevation 
to  35  feet  on  very  exposed  ridges  at  1520  feet  at  60 
years  old.  Eeckoning  the  average  height  of  a  plantation  at 
1400  feet  to  be  45  feet  at  60  years  old,  the  yield  would 
be  2470  cubic  feet  per  acre,  an  increment  of  40  cubic  feet 
per  annum.  Such  a  yield  would  justify  the  planting  of 
spruce  at  this  elevation  from  a  financial  point  of  view. 

At  Durris,  in  Scotland,  spruce  felled  at  60  years  old 
averaged  5600  cubic  feet  per  acre  in  a  plantation  at  800 
feet  elevation,  equivalent  to  an  average  annual  increment  of 
over  90  cubic  feet  per  acre.  In  the  Kilworth  plantation, 
County  Cork,  at  300  feet  elevation  on  good  alluvial  soil,  a 
plot  of  spruce,  78  years  planted,  measured  about  12,000 
cubic  feet  per  acre,  corresponding  to  an  annual  increment 
of  about  150  cubic  feet  per  acre.  These  figures  show  the 
great  yields  of  spruce  under  varying  conditions  of  altitude. 
In  hilly  districts  on  suitable  soil  with  moderate  or  slight 
exposure,  spruce  may  be  expected  to  yield  90  to  100  cubic 
feet  per  acre  annually  if  grown  in  large  areas  in  close  order. 
At  higher  altitudes  it  will  produce  enough  timber  to  pay 
for  the  expenses  of  planting ;  and  below  such  high  belts  of 
spruce  other  plantations  will  flourish  better  on  account  of 
the  protection  afforded. 

Sitka  Spruce. — This  tree  is  so  important  for  the  affores- 
tation of  the  worst  sites  in  our  planting  areas  that  some 
account  of  its  occurrence  in  its  native  habitat  will  be  of 
interest.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Pacific  Coast  region  from 
Alaska  to  Northern  California,  where  it  grows  along  the 
shore  and  inland  for  a  few  miles,  ascending  even  in  the  far 
north  to  2000  to  3000  feet  altitude  on  mountain  slopes 
exposed  to  the  sea.      It  is  unharmed  either  by  the  strong 


TEEES  FOB.  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    137 

west  wind  or  by  the  sea  spray,  and  attains  a  gigantic  size, 
rivalling  in  this  respect  the  Douglas  fir,  which  it  almost 
equals  in  rapidity  of  growth.  It  grows  on  poorer  and 
wetter  soil  than  the  latter  tree.  The  timber  is  like  white 
deal,  is  entirely  without  taste  or  odour,  and  is  cut  in 
Alaska  and  British  Columbia  for  making  butter-casks, 
packing-cases  for  fruit,  wood-pulp,  and  pianos,  as  well  as  in 
ordinary  house  and  boat  building.  Imported  now  under 
the  name  of  silver  spruce,  its  strength,  stiffness,  lightness, 
and  elasticity  make  it  the  most  suitable  wood  in  aeroplane 
construction.  The  climate  where  it  grows  is  similar  to  our 
own,  described  as  "  mild  and  uniform,  with  heavy  rainfall, 
high  humidity,  and  dense  fogs ;  summers  generally  mild 
and  winters  not  severe.  The  temperature  drops  to  —  35°  F. 
towards  its  northerly  limit ;  while  towards  the  south  and 
along  the  coast  light  frosts  occur  and  temperature  falls  to 
zero." 

Sitka  spruce  is  extremely  vigorous  in  growth,  being  only 
surpassed  by  the  Douglas  fir  at  all  ages,  and  by  the  Japanese 
larch  in  the  young  stage.  It  is  especially  adapted  for 
planting  in  difficult  conditions  of  soil,  where  other  species 
would  be  a  failure.  It  grows  well  in  wet  ground,  in  acid 
peaty  soil,  in  exposed  situations,  and  at  high  altitudes.  It 
is  at  home  in  the  districts  bordering  on  the  western  coast, 
where  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall  and  a  constant  prevailing 
wind.  It  does  not  thrive  on  dry  gravelly  soils ;  but  in 
general  it  is  comparatively  indifferent  to  soil,  and  makes 
excellent  growth  in  all  parts  of  the  British  Isles.  It  is  the 
species  that  should  be  selected  for  planting  in  wet  places  in 
most  plantations ;  and  it  should  be  used  extensively  at  high 
altitudes  in  the  heather  moorland.  The  tree  is  excellent 
in  form,  making  a  beautiful  straight  stem  (Fig.  26).  The 
seedlings  are  slow  in  growth  during  the  first  two  years,  and 
require  protection  from  frost.  Transplanted  at  the  beginning 
of  the  third  year,  they  may  be  planted  out  when  they  have 
completed  their  third  or  fourth  year.  Larger  plants,  3  to  4 
feet  high,  can  be  safely  moved,  and  should  be  preferred  in 
low-lying  situations  liable  to  frost.     After  the  Sitka  spruce 


138  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

is  once  established  it  gives  no  further  trouble ;  it  cleans  its 
stem  more  rapidly  than  the  common  spruce,  but,  like  it, 
must  be  kept  dense  if  timber  free  from  knots  and  narrow- 
ringed  is  desired. 

There  are  many  enormous  isolated  trees  of  this  species 
in  parks  and  pleasure  grounds,  one  of  the  finest  being  a  tree 
at  Murthly,  which  measured  125  feet  in  height  and  13^ 
feet  in  girth  in  1916,  and  is  known  not  to  exceed  70 
years  of  age.  Old  plantations  of  Sitka  spruce  are  rare,  the 
best  known  being  that  of  Strathgyle,  Durris.  Here  80 
acres  of  exposed  moorland,  at  750  to  900  feet  elevation, 
were  planted  in  1879.  Larch  and  Scots  pine  failed  com- 
pletely. Sitka  spruce  flourishes  to  the  highest  point, 
excelling  the  common  spruce  in  height,  and  suppressing  it 
in  mixture.  At  31  years  old  Sitka  spruce  in  a  pure 
part  of  this  plantation  averaged  50  feet  in  height,  and  was 
estimated  to  contain  6000  cubic  feet  of  timber  per  acre, 
almost  an  annual  increment  of  200  cubic  feet.  In  the 
west  of  Scotland,  at  Loch  Ossian,  it  is  growing  well  in 
young  plantations  at  1300  feet  elevation  under  the  worst 
conditions  of  soil  and  exposure,  having  been  planted  by  the 
Belgian  method,  on  inverted  turfs.  At  Glenart,  in  County 
Wicklow,  a  plantation  of  larch  and  Sitka  spruce,  43 
years  old,  at  300  feet  elevation,  is  very  thriving.  Sitka 
spruce  here  averages  75  to  83  feet  in  height,  with  a  girth 
of  5  to  6  feet.  Splendid  larch  alongside  it  are  much  less 
in  size,  averaging  70  feet  in  height  by  3  to  4  feet  in  girth. 
Scots  pine  is  only  50  feet  by  3  feet. 

White  Spruce. — This  species  is  of  little  value  for  pro- 
ducing a  timber  crop  in  this  country,  as  under  ordinary 
circumstances  it  is  much  inferior  to  common  spruce.  It 
has,  however,  been  successfully  used  in  the  formation  of 
shelter  belts  on  exposed  sites  at  high  elevations  in  the 
north  of  England  and  in  Scotland,  It  is  absolutely  hardy ; 
and  at  Ashgill  Wood,  in  Northumberland,  attained  30  feet 
in  height  at  1800  feet  elevation  on  damp  peaty  ground, 
where  common  spruce  failed  to  resist  the  cold  winds.      It 


TEEES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    139 

is  planted  for  shelter  in  wet  bleak  situations  in  Caithness, 
Aberdeenshire,  the  Moorfoot  Hills  of  Midlothian  and  the 
Peeblesshire  Hills.  In  Loudon's  time  it  was  planted  in  Con- 
naught,  where  it  throve  in  elevated  positions  much  exposed 
to  the  wind.  It  can  be  raised  in  the  nursery  quite  cheaply 
from  seed,  its  treatment  differing  in  no  way  from  the  common 
spruce.  It  may  be  tried  in  difficult  situations,  as  on  exposed 
ridges  or  in  wet  peaty  soil  at  high  elevations,  when  it  is 
desired  to  give  shelter  to  adjoining  plantations  below.  It  will 
ascend  200  feet  higher  than  the  limit  of  the  common  spruce. 

European  Larch. — This  species,  when  grown  in  suitable 
conditions  and  kept  free  from  disease  by  measures  calculated 
to  sustain  its  vigorous  development,  is  one  of  the  most 
profitable  trees.  It  has  the  especial  merit  of  yielding 
earlier  returns  than  any  other  species,  as  its  thinnings  are 
saleable  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  year  onwards;  and 
plantations  are  ready  for  felling  at  the  end  of  forty  to  sixty 
years.  Heartwood  is  formed  very  early ;  and  the  timber  is 
remarkably  durable  and  generally  useful,  as  for  gates  and 
fencing  on  estates,  for  pitwood,  poles  of  all  kinds,  and  in 
building  where  strength  is  required.  Grown  properly,  the 
larch  develops  a  clean  cylindrical  stem,  the  slender  branches 
being  killed  off  before  they  form  large  knots.  The  larch 
combines  high  quality  of  timber  with  rapid  growth,  but 
nevertheless  cannot  be  considered  a  very  reliable  species, 
as  most  plantations  contain  a  considerable  percentage  of 
diseased  and  crooked  stems.  Being  very  light-demanding, 
the  trees,  as  they  advance  towards  maturity,  do  not  stand 
dense  upon  the  ground ;  and  the  yield  of  timber  per  acre  is 
much  less  than  that  of  spruce  and  silver  fir,  even  when  a 
plantation  is  quite  successful.  As  a  main-crop  tree  larch  is 
unfortunately  very  liable  to  be  attacked  by  canker,  a  disease 
caused  by  the  Peziza  fungus,  which  often  ruins  whole 
plantations. 

Larch  rarely  remains  healthy  if  grown  on  unsuitable 
soil  or  in  low-lying  situations  liable  to  spring  frost.  On 
dry  shallow  soils,  as  on  chalk,  it  does  not  thrive,  and  early 


140  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

succumbs  to  heart-rot.  It  suffers  much  from  exposure  to 
wind,  and  cannot  therefore  be  planted  at  such  high  eleva- 
tions as  spruce.  On  Kerry  Hill  in  Wales,  and  in  Coombe 
Plantation,  Keswick,  spruce  yields  a  fair  amount  of  timber 
up  to  1500  feet,  while  larch  is  useless  above  1250  feet 
elevation.  Larch  should  never  be  planted  in  wet  grovmd, 
and  when  very  wet  spots  occur  in  a  plantation,  larch  should 
be  replaced  by  Sitka  spruce. 

Larch  develops  superficial  roots  and  thrives  on  shallow 
soils  provided  they  contain  a  good  deal  of  moisture.  It 
grows  well,  as  a  rule,  on  the  slopes  of  hills,  where  the  soil  is 
porous  and  well -drained.  While  its  use  in  afforestation 
is  somewhat  limited,  yet  there  are  generally  extensive  areas 
where  its  cultivation  may  be  attempted  with  success.  In 
the  hill  pasture  zone  it  is  adapted  for  planting  in  valleys, 
in  ravines,  and  on  sheltered  hillsides ;  and  it  may  be 
carried  up  into  the  heather  moor,  when  the  situation  is  not 
too  exposed  or  too  elevated.  On  sandy  heaths,  where  Scots 
pine  is  at  home,  larch  may  be  introduced  wherever  there 
is  sufficient  moisture  ;  but  it  is  not  so  suitable  for  pure 
sand  as  the  pine. 

Planted  in  mixture  with  other  trees  as  a  nurse,  it  can  be 
early  removed  in  the  shape  of  thinnings,  since  even  slender 
poles  contain  heartwood  ;  but  this  practice  must  be  carried 
out  with  discretion,  as  there  are  mixtures  in  common  use 
which  are  very  unsuitable. 

Larch  should  never  be  planted  pure,  as  this  invites  the 
attack  of  disease.  Being  a  light-demanding  tree,  the  soil  is 
not  improved  by  its  sparse  leaf-fall  and  feeble  shade.  To 
avert  disease,  vigour  of  growth  must  be  fostered  by  improve- 
ment of  the  soil,  which  is  brought  about  by  mixing  the 
larch  with  some  shade -bearing  tree.  Beech  is  the  best 
species  for  this  purpose  in  most  situations,  though  chestnut 
may  be  tried  in  mild  climates  on  sandy  soil,  and  hornbeam 
in  cold  localities  on  clay.  Proper  treatment  is  also  necessary 
to  keep  off  disease ;  and  larch  plantations  must  be  thinned 
early,  heavily,  and  often.  This  is  necessary  to  remove  sup- 
pressed and  enfeebled  trees  suffering  from  lack  of  light,  as 


TREES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    141 


such  are  invariably  attacked  by  the  fungus.  It  is  advisable 
also  to  raise  larch  seedlings  in  the  home  nursery ;  and  thus 
avoid  the  chance  of  importing  diseased  plants  from  a  distance. 

It  is  probable  also  that  the  choice  of  seed  is  of  great 
importance,  as  bad  seed  produces  feeble  seedlings,  which 
readily  succumb  to  disease  when  planted  out.  The  question 
of  home-grown  versus  Swiss  seed  is  not  decided.  The 
foreign  seed  shows,  as  a  rule,  higher  germinating  power,  but 
this  is  probably  due  to  more  care  having  been  taken  in 
the  gathering  and  cleaning  of  the  seed.  Scott-Elliot  found 
Scottish  seed  to  be  lighter  and  smaller  on  an  average  than 
Swiss  seed.  If  seed  were  gathered  from  the  best  Scottish 
trees,  it  might  be  as  good  or  even  surpass  in  quality  the 
Swiss  seed.  One  thing  can  be  done,  namely,  to  discard  and 
burn  all  feeble  seedlings,  and  only  plant  out  strong, 
vigorous,  and  well-rooted  plants. 

Selected  plots  of  larch  (Fig.  25)  often  show  very  heavy 
yields  of  timber.  In  the  Galtee  Mountains,  Ireland,  plots 
measured  by  Mr.  Waddingham  gave  the  following  results 
(quarter-girth  measurement) : 


Altitude 
ill  Feet. 

Years 
of  Age. 

Volume 
per  Acre, 
Cubic  Feet. 

Average  Annual 
Increment, 
Cubic  Feet. 

600 
700 
480 
400 
400 
1000 

34 
44 
53 
53 
55 
63 

3180 
3920 
4588 
4043 
4855 
3861 

94 
89 
86 
76 
88 
61 

In  the  Forest  of  Dean,  on  good  sandy  loam  at  700  feet, 
three  plots  of  one  acre  each,  65  years  old,  gave  yields 
of  4014,  4081,  and  4893  cubic  feet,  being  61,  63,  and 
7  6  cubic  feet  of  annual  increment  per  acre.  At  Madresfield 
a  plantation  21  years  old  measured  2408  cubic  feet,  or  an 
annual  increment  of  115  cubic  feet  per  acre. 

A  large  grove  of  2|-  acres  at  Walcot,  Shropshire,  which, 
judging    from    the    rings,    was    124    years    old,    had    86 


142  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

trees  to  the  acre,  125  to  135  feet  in  height  (the  tallest  on 
record  in  England),  with  a  total  volume  of  6430  cubic  feet 
(quarter-girth  measurement),  equivalent  to  an  average  annual 
increment  of  52  cubic  feet  per  acre.  If  the  thinnings,  which 
are  unknown,  were  added,  the  total  yield  would  be  enormous. 
(See  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  iii,  357  (1909).) 

No  ordinary  plantation  would  give  a  yield  over  its 
whole  area  comparable  to  those  recorded  above  for  selected 
plots.  We  can  count,  however,  safely  on  yields  of  40  to 
70  cubic  feet  per  annum  per  acre  in  successful  plantations. 

Japanese  Larch. — This  species  is  remarkable  for  its 
extraordinary  rapidity  of  growth  when  young.  Owing  to 
this  excessive  vigour,  it  resists  the  attacks  of  Peziza,  which 
are  most  liable  to  occur  between  the  fifth  and  fifteenth  year. 
In  fact,  Japanese  larch  may  be  considered  to  be  practically 
immune  from  canker  disease.  It  is  also,  for  the  same 
reason,  free  from  serious  attacks  of  insects,  like  Chermes, 
Coleophora,  and  Argyresthia,  which  injure  the  common 
larch.  These  great  advantages,  vigour  of  growth  and 
freedom  from  disease,  are  counterbalanced  by  the  fact  that 
Japanese  larch  tends  to  grow  crooked,  and  does  not  develop 
the  beautiful  cylindrical  stems  which  characterise  well- 
grown  European  larch.  Plantations  of  Japanese  larch  in 
Scotland  over  twenty  years  old  show  coarse,  curved,  and 
crooked  stems.  The  timber  is  also  not  so  strong  as  that 
of  the  common  species ;  and  when  young  trees  are  cut  for 
pitwood  the  props  are  not  so  valuable. 

Japanese  larch  bears  considerably  more  shade  than  the 
European  larch  ;  and  when  planted  four  feet  apart,  it 
quickly  covers  the  ground,  killing  the  grass  very  soon  and 
producing  an  excellent  layer  of  humus.  As  the  stems  can 
be  kept  close  together,  this  is  one  of  the  factors  contributing 
to  the  great  volume  of  timber  produced  during  youth  by 
this  species.  Japanese  larch  is  also  a  very  hardy  tree, 
resisting  spring  frost  better  than  the  common  species.  It 
also  grows  fairly  well  in  exposed  situations,  where  European 
larch    would    fail    completely.      It    makes,    however,    only 


TKEES  FOE  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    143 

feeble  growth  on  dry  soils,  and  was  killed  outright  in  dry 
situations  generally  by  the  great  drought  of  1911. 

One  main  use  of  Japanese  larch  in  this  country  is  to 
produce  a  crop  of  pit  timber  in  a  short  term  of  years,  say 
in  20  to  25  years  after  planting.  Owing  to  its  great 
vigour  at  the  start  it  can  also  be  used  for  planting  difficult 
sites  where  other  species  fail,  as,  for  example,  land  liable 
to  be  covered  with  a  matted  dense  growth  of  grass,  such  as 
occurs  in  districts  lying  on  the  western  seaboard  of  Scotland 
and  in  many  parts  of  Ireland.  It  will  succeed  on  poor 
shallow  soil  (Fig.  24)  provided  there  is  sufficient  moisture.  It 
has  been  recommended  for  planting  areas  overrun  with  furze 
and  bracken  ;  but  such  land  if  not  in  too  exposed  a  situation 
will,  as  a  rule,  support  other  species  yielding  better  timber. 

Japanese  larch  may  be  used  as  a  main-crop  tree  in 
localities  where  pitwood  is  readily  saleable ;  and  is,  of 
course,  a  substitute  for  European  larch  in  parts  of  the 
country  where  the  latter  suffers  severely  from  canker. 
It  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  catch-crop  tree,  to  be  planted 
with  the  idea  of  getting  a  speedy  return  from  an  area 
difficult  to  afforest.  Land  on  which  Japanese  larch  had 
been  grown  for  a  short  rotation  of  20  to  30  years  would 
be  in  excellent  condition  for  the  planting  of  another  species 
destined  for  growing  valuable  timber  on  a  long  rotation. 

The  growth  of  Japanese  larch  seems  to  be  little  affected 
by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  provided  it  contains  sufficient 
moisture.  The  growth  in  height,  while  extremely  rapid  in 
youth,  later  drops  off  very  considerably.  The  average 
attained  by  plantations  in  this  country  is  about  32  feet 
at  16  years  old  from  seed,  55  feet  at  32  years  old,  and 
65  feet  at  37  years  old.  In  young  plantations  the  volume 
comprises  much  branch  wood  of  little  value.  The  average 
annual  increment  of  plantations  32  years  old  may  be  reckoned 
at  100  to  120  cubic  feet  of  timber  per  acre. 

Western  Larch  {Larix  occidentalis). — This  is  the  finest 
of  all  the  larches,  attaining  in  Western  Montana  and  the 
adjacent  districts  of  Idaho  (Fig.  23)  and  British  Columbia 


144  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

a  height  of  160  feet  and  a  girth  of  15  feet,  and  yielding 
timber  of  magnificent  quality.  Introduced  by  seed  for 
the  first  time  in  1903  by  Elwes,  followed  up  by  larger 
supplies  in  1908  (consequent  on  the  visit  of  the  writer  to 
Montana  in  1906),  this  larch  is  now  being  extensively 
tried  both  in  this  country  and  on  the  Continent,  A  few 
older  trees,  introduced  as  living  plants  in  1881  and  1889, 
have  thriven  well  in  the  poor  sandy  soil  of  the  pinetum  at 
Kew  ;  and  during  dry  years  are  conspicuous  amongst  other 
species  by  their  freedom  from  Chermes  and  their  extremely 
healthy  dark-green  foliage.  This  tree  would  seem,  then,  to 
be  best  suited  for  a  dry  and  continental  climate.  A  small 
plantation  of  western  larch  in  the  Queen's  Cottage  grounds 
at  Kew  is  healthy ;  but  the  trees,  until  1917,  were  slow  in 
growth,  showing  less  vigour  than  European  larch.  In  1018 
they  made  vigorous  leading  shoots  of  2  to  3  feet  in  length, 
in  all  probability  due  to  the  grass  having  been  entirely 
killed  by  brambles  in  the  preceding  year.  Possibly  they 
will  ultimately  overtake  European  larch  in  height-growth 
in  the  sandy  soil  and  comparatively  dry  climate  of  Kew. 

Hemlock  Spruce. — The  Western  Hemlock  Spruce  {Tsuga 
Albertiana)  is  one  of  the  great  trees  in  the  Pacific  Coast 
forests  of  North  America,  ranking  in  vigour  of  growth  after 
Douglas  fir  and  Sitka  spruce.  It  is  a  successful  ornamental 
tree  in  this  country,  attaining  in  favourable  conditions  about 
80  feet  in  height  in  40  to  50  years;  but  it  has  seldom 
been  used  in  plantations.  It  has  given  good  results  at 
Novar  when  used  in  underplanting  larch. 

As  a  forest  tree  it  bears  great  shade  and  develops 
a  straight  cylindrical  stem,  on  which  the  dead  branches 
persist  in  the  same  way  as  they  do  on  silver  fir  or  spruce ; 
and  it  must  be  grown  in  close  order  if  clean  stems  are 
desired.  The  wood  is  of  about  the  same  value  as  spruce. 
It  reproduces  itself  naturally  in  all  parts  of  this  country ; 
and  can  be  cheaply  raised  from  home-grown  seed.  Seedlings 
in  the  nursery  require  to  be  shaded  from  the  sun's  rays  and 
protected    against   frost;  transplanted   at   the   end    of    the 


TEEES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    145 

second  year,  they  can  be  planted  out  when  three  or  four 
years  old  (Fig.  22).  Tsuga  Alhertiana  grows  well  on 
most  soils,  except  on  chalk  and  stiff  clay.  It  is  at  home  in 
a  mild  climate,  and  will  not  bear  great  exposure.  It  suffers, 
however,  less  from  wind  than  Douglas  fir.  There  is  little 
inducement  to  attempt  its  cultivation  as  a  main-crop  tree  ; 
but  it  may  be  planted  as  a  soil -improving  species  in 
company  with  larch  ;  and  it  can  be  used  to  fill  up  blank 
spots  in  open  woods,  as  it  bears  a  considerable  amount  of 
lateral  shade. 

Thuya  gigantea. — This  species  is  widely  spread  in  western 
Nortli  America,  where  it  is  usually  found  growing  isolated 
or  in  small  groups  amidst  other  species,  mostly  in  moist 
valleys  and  along  water  courses,  and  attaining  its  largest 
size  in  Vancouver  Island  and  the  adjacent  coast  of  the 
mainland  in  a  humid  climate.  It  is  very  vigorous  in  growth, 
but  inferior  in  this  respect  to  Douglas  fir  and  Sitka  spruce. 
It  is  an  intense  shade-bearer,  rapidly  covering  the  ground  ; 
and  cleans  its  stem  with  the  greatest  difficulty,  the  branches 
persisting  till  late  in  the  life  of  the  tree.  The  wood  is  light, 
strong,  and  very  durable. 

Thuya  gigantea  has  been  much  recommended  for  planting 
in  this  country,  and  has  considerable  merits.  It  is  for  so 
far  a  very  healthy  tree,  free  from  insect  and  fungus  attacks. 
It  may  be  cheaply  raised  from  home-grown  seed,  and  can  be 
planted  out  with  the  greatest  ease.  It  is  most  suitable  for 
damp  and  peaty  soils  in  humid  climates ;  and  has  succeeded 
remarkably  well  on  the  Benmore  estate,  Argyllshire,  where 
it  is  mainly  grown  (Fig.  30)  in  mixture  with  Douglas  fir, 
and  regenerates  itself  freely  from  self-sown  seed.  It  grows 
also  fairly  well  on  shallow  oolite  and  chalky  soils.  It  can 
be  planted  pure,  or  in  mixture  with  Douglas  fir,  larch,  or 
Sitka  spruce.  The  main  objection  to  extensive  use  of  the 
Thuya  is  that  clean  timber  cannot  be  expected  from  it, 
unless  it  is  grown  on  a  very  long  rotation.  It  will  ordin- 
arily produce  knotty  poles,  which  are,  however,  very  durable 
and    useful    for    many    purposes,  as    for   pitwood,  fencing, 

L 


146  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

building,  etc.     It  will  scarcely  yield  sawn  timber  of  any 
value.  » 

It  suffers  from  exposure  to  constant  wind,  and  this  limits 
its  use  to  moderate  altitudes,  where  it  is  especially  useful 
for  shelter  on  the  margins  of  plantations  (Fig.  31),  At 
Monreith,  Wigtownshire,  it  was  killed  on  low-lying  exposed 
ground  by  a  late  frost  in  the  year  after  it  was  planted  out. 
It  is  very  suitable  for  underplanting  larch  that  has  lost  its 
vigour  and  begun  to  suffer  from  disease.  As  a  main-crop 
tree,  its  use  will  be  limited  to  western  localities,  where  the 
rainfall  is  heavy  and  the  exposure  not  too  great. 

Lawson  Cypress. — This  species  is  remarkable  for  its  free- 
dom from  injury  from  frost,  insects,  or  fungi.  It  is  very 
cheaply  raised  from  seed,  and  is  readily  transplanted.  It 
bears  exposure  to  wind  better  than  Thuya  gigantea,  but  is 
considerably  slower  in  growth.  Like  that  species,  it  is  an 
intense  shade-bearer,  and  cleans  its  stem  only  after  a  long 
term  of  years.  The  timber  of  old  trees  in  Oregon  is  re- 
markably good,  but  such  cannot  be  produced  here  on 
rotations  that  would  yield  any  profit.  Its  use,  then,  in 
afforestation  in  this  country  must  be  extremely  limited.  It 
grows  well  on  peaty  soils,  and  might  be  occasionally  tried 
in  patches  in  plantations  in  the  wettest  districts,  or  in 
underplanting. 

Cupressus  macrocarpa. —  This  species  occurs  wild  at 
Monterey  on  the  coast  of  California,  in  the  same  limited 
district  as  Pinus  insignis,  and  like  that  species  is  character- 
ised by  great  vigour.  It  grows  fast,  and  is  perfectly  hardy 
in  the  milder  parts  of  this  country,  as  in  the  south  and 
south-west  of  England,  in  Wales,  on  the  western  seaboard 
of  Scotland,  and  in  the  maritime  counties  of  Ireland 
(Fig.  29).  It  produces  in  a  short  period  of  years  an  im- 
mense volume  of  timber.  Being  a  dense  shade -bearer, 
Cupressus  macrocarpa  does  not  ordinarily  clean  its  stem,  as 
when  grown  pure  the  branches  persist  indefinitely,  even 
when  the  trees  stand  close  together.  Mixed  with  beech  the 
branches  could  be  much  sooner  killed  off,  and  more  valuable 


^  1 


TEEES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    147 

timber  would  be  produced.  The  wood  of  isolated  branchy 
trees  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  very  durable ;  and,  though 
very  knotty,  has  proved  suitable  for  fencing,  for  building, 
and  for  pitwood.  In  New  Zealand,  a  plantation  of  this 
species  "  has  yielded  posts  and  telephone  poles  of  the  most 
perfect  type  and  durability,"  and  a  similar  use  might  be 
found  for  trees  grown  in  plantations  in  this  country. 

As  a  main-crop  tree,  Cvpressus  macrocarjm  is  strictly 
limited  to  localities  near  the  sea,  at  a  low  elevation  and  in 
a  mild  climate.  It  appears  to  be  indifferent  to  soil,  growing 
vigorously  even  on  poor  shallow  soil  overlying  chalk  in 
Sussex.  The  seedlings  are  easy  to  raise,  and  may  be  planted 
out  when  a  year  old  in  situations  where  the  surface  vegeta- 
tion is  slight,  or  as  two-  or  three-year-old  seedlings,  where 
a  dense  growth  of  grass  is  expected.  This  species  is  suit- 
able for  introduction  in  groups  to  fill  up  blanks  in  wood- 
lands near  the  sea.  Its  use  as  a  shelter  belt  and  for  hedges 
is  well  known.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  the  cultivation  of 
this  tree  in  situations  exposed  to  cold  winds  or  to  spring 
frosts. 


Beoad-Leaved  Trees 

Beech. — The  importance  of  the  beech  in  forestry  cannot 
be  over-estimated.  It  flourishes  in  most  soils,  except  peat 
and  wet  clay ;  and  produces,  when  grown  in  woods  by  itself, 
a  large  volume  of  timber  per  acre.  As  it  bears  much  shade, 
the  stems  stand  close  together,  and  the  dense  canopy  of  the 
foliage  covers  the  ground,  so  that  evaporation  is  checked 
and  moisture  in  the  soil  retained,  while  the  grass  is  killed. 
Its  heavy  fall  of  leaves  produces  by  their  decay  an  abun- 
dant, mild,  and  fertile  humus.  Beech  thus  greatly  improves 
the  soil ;  and  is  accordingly  mixed  with  other  trees,  especially 
with  species  requiring  much  light  like  ash,  oak,  and  larch, 
which  are  unable  to  protect  the  soil  once  they  are  past  the 
young  stage  of  growth.  These  valuable  trees,  when  grown 
amongst  beech,  develop  tall,  straight,  cylindrical  stems,  free 
from   branches  and  knots   in   their  lower  half,  the  timber 


148  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

produced  being  increased  in  quantity  and  improved  in 
quality  by  the  admixture.  Beech  also  resists  wind  well, 
and  when  mixed  with  other  trees  renders  the  crop  wind- 
firm.      It  is  also  valuable  in  shelter  belts. 

Masses  of  pure  conifers,  as  of  spruce,  silver  fir,  larch, 
Douglas  fir,  etc.,  are  liable  to  be  attacked  by  fungi  and 
insects  ;  and  it  is  of  great  benefit  to  intersperse  amidst  these 
uniform  forests,  bands  and  groups  of  beech  and  other  broad- 
leaved  trees,  which  will  intercept  the  spread  of  spores  by 
the  foliage,  and  check  insects  by  harbouring  birds.  In  this 
way,  suitable  spots  for  ash,  oak,  sycamore,  and  elm,  mingled 
with  beech,  may  be  found  throughout  the  conifer  planta- 
tions. 

Natural  woods  of  beech  occur  in  the  Chiltern  Hills  and 
in  the  North  and  South  Downs  on  the  chalk,  and  in  the 
Cotswolds  on  oolitic  limestone.  Here  beech  is  found 
thriving  on  shallow  soil,  the  rock  below  being  often  covered 
with  only  a  few  inches  of  humus.  The  productivity  of  the 
Chiltern  beech  woods  is  well  known.  These  are  worked  on 
the  selection  system,  a  section  of  a  wood  being  taken  in 
hand  each  year,  and  from  it  the  largest  stems  are  extracted 
by  felling.  On  the  spots  from  which  the  trees  have  been 
removed,  there  springs  up  an  abundance  of  seedling  beech, 
so  that  natural  regeneration  is  readily  effected,  and  no  ex- 
pense is  incurred  in  the  establishment  of  a  young  crop  by 
planting.  Areas  occur  in  which  beech  is  pure,  but  it  is 
often  mixed  with  scattered  ash,  whitebeam,  and  cherry,  the 
latter  being  often  abundant,  and  occasionally  large  in  size. 
Beech,  after  it  has  passed  the  young  pole  stage,  should  not 
be  kept  too  dense  upon  the  ground,  as  with  complete  canopy 
the  leaves  are  slow  in  decomposing,  and  produce,  especially 
on  non-calcareous  soil,  an  acid  humus.  The  ground  remains 
bare  of  vegetation  or  else  becomes  covered  with  moss,  Aira 
flexuosa,  and  Melavipyrum,  plants  indicative  of  impoverished 
soil ;  and  the  beech  ceases  to  grow  vigorously,  while  natural 
regeneration  is  impossible  under  these  conditions.  With  a 
slightly  open  canopy,  the  leaves  decay  quickly,  producing 
an  alkaline  or  neutral  humus ;  and  the  soil  is  decked  with 


TEEES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    149 

flowering  plants,  like  Anemone,  Oxalis,  Circaea,  and  Aspenda, 
with  woodland  grasses,  like  Milium  and  Melica,  and  with 
oak  fern.  The  heech  then  grows  vigorously,  developing 
tall  stems  (Fig.  27),  and  regenerates  freely. 

Beech  is  tender  to  frost  when  young ;  and  seedlings  may 
often  be  raised  with  advantage  under  the  protection  of  light- 
foliaged  trees,  like  birch,  ash,  or  oak.  It  should  not  be 
planted  in  low-lying  frosty  situations,  unless  under  the  cover 
of  an  advance  growth  of  birch.  It  will  grow  up  to  a  con- 
siderable altitude  in  the  mountains,  but  becomes  stunted  in 
height  and  ceases  to  produce  timber  in  quantity.  It  is 
accordingly  not  of  much  value  as  a  main- crop  tree  in  planta- 
tions in  the  hill  pasture  zone.  Below  this  zone,  beech 
should  be  grown  pure  on  poor  calcareous  soil,  on  which  no 
other  tree  will  thrive.  On  other  soils,  as  explained  above, 
it  should  be  grown  largely  to  form  a  matrix  for  valuable 
timber  trees,  like  ash,  oak,  elm,  sycamore,  and  larch.  Most 
of  these  trees  may  be  scattered  amidst  the  beech,  singly  or 
in  very  small  groups ;  but  oak  is  better  planted  amidst 
beech  in  large  groups. 

Ash. — The  common  ash  is  perhaps  our  most  valuable 
broad-leaved  tree.  It  produces  a  strong,  tough,  elastic,  light 
wood,  which  is  essential  to  our  industries,  and  cannot  be 
replaced  by  any  imported  substitute.  It  grows  fast,  and 
is  ready  for  felling  at  an  early  age,  the  timber  being  always 
saleable  at  a  good  price.  For  these  reasons,  ash  ought  to  be 
more  extensively  cultivated ;  but  there  are  difficulties  in 
the  successful  planting  of  this  species  which  can  only  be 
overcome  by  a  thorough  understanding  of  its  peculiar  re- 
quirements. It  can  rarely  be  grown  in  a  wood  by  itself. 
Pure  plantations  of  ash  on  a  considerable  scale  are  often 
attempted,  but  do  not  seem  ever  to  be  successful.  Once  it 
has  passed  the  young  stage,  ash  requires  much  light  and 
space.  Under  the  scanty  cover  of  its  sparse  foliage,  the  soil 
deteriorates,  losing  its  moisture  and  often  becoming  clothed 
with  dense  grass,  which  seriously  checks  the  growth  of  the 
trees  in  height  and  diameter.      Ash  scarcely  flourishes  unless 


150  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

it  is  grown  singly  or  in  groups  amidst  other  trees,  which 
are  capable  of  killing  the  undergrowth  of  grass  and  of  keep- 
ing the  soil  moist  and  covered  with  good  humus.  In  other 
words,  ash  must  be  grown  in  a  matrix  of  trees  slower 
in  growth,  which  protect  the  soil.  A  suitable  species  for 
this  purpose  is  hazel,  which  is  not  injured  by  the  shade  of 
the  ash.  A  small  plantation  of  mixed  ash  and  hazel  made 
on  fairly  good  soil  at  Westwick,  Norfolk,,  in  1906,  has 
grown  splendidly.  The  ash  had  in  1918  an  average  height 
of  36  feet,  with  a  girth  of  14  inches,  while  the  hazel 
beneath  was  about  6  to  8  feet  high. 

Ash  also  requires  for  its  proper  development  a  soil  rich 
in  mineral  constituents  and  at  the  same  time  full  of  moisture  ; 
but  the  water  must  not  be  stagnant.  It  is,  in  fact,  one  of 
the  most  exacting  of  our  forest  trees,  as  it  only  thrives  on 
moist  deep  soil,  preferably  light  and  loamy,  and  containing 
lime. 

In  England  there  are  natural  woods,  in  which  ash  is  the 
predominant  tree,  mixed  with  oak,  wych  elm,  hazel,  haw- 
thorn, etc.,  on  the  limestone  hills  of  Yorkshire,  Derbyshire, 
Westmorland,  and  Somerset,  and  on  the  chalk  in  Devon, 
Dorset,  and  Isle  of  Wight ;  but  the  trees  are  small  in  size 
and  poor  in  quality,  except  where  there  is  much  moisture 
in  the  soil.  These  woods  ascend  to  1000  or  even  1250 
feet  elevation  in  the  Pen  nines. 

Ash  tends  to  spread  naturally  and  oust  other  trees 
wherever  the  soil  is  either  calcareous  or  contains  a  good 
deal  of  moisture.  It  regenerates  itself  freely  by  self-sown 
seed  throughout  the  British  Isles.  Under  natural  condi- 
tions the  finest  ash  would  grow  in  deep  alluvial  soil  in  river 
valleys,  but  in  this  country  such  land  has  long  since  been 
monopolised  by  agriculture,  and  does  not  now  carry  forests. 
In  the  limestone  districts  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland 
there  are  many  spots  with  fairly  deep,  moist,  and  well- 
drained  soil,  on  which  would  grow  fine  groves  of  ash,  but 
most  of  such  sites  are  probably  taken  up  by  the  farmer  or 
grazier.  On  thin,  chalky  soils,  as  in  the  Lincolnshire 
wolds,   beech    succeeds    well    in    situations    unsuitable    for 


TEEES  FOE  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    151 

agriculture,  and  often  produces  fine  crops  of  timber. 
Here  ash  mixed  in  small  quantities  amidst  the  beech 
forms  very  remunerative  thinnings  in  the  middle  part 
of  the  life  of  the  wood,  and  in  all  cases  should  be  felled  at 
from  60  to  80  years  old,  for  if  left  longer  it  becomes  unsound. 
In  the  preliminary  survey  of  large  areas  for  planting, 
situations  suitable  for  ash  should  be  specially  looked  for. 
These  will  be  found  along  water  courses  on  the  slopes  of 
hills,  on  the  sides  of  ravines  where  the  water  percolates 
through  from  the  ground  above,  and  in  the  valleys  on  the 
deep  soil  not  far  from  the  banks  of  the  streams.  On  such 
sites,  ash  should  be  freely  planted,  mingled  with  other  trees, 
like  beech,  larch,  elm,  sycamore,  and  oak. 

Ash  should  never  be  planted  on  poor,  dry,  or  shallow 
soils.  It  does  not  thrive  on  pure  sand,  on  gravel,  on  dry 
chalk,  on  stiff  clay,  or  on  wet  peat.  At  high  altitudes  and 
on  unsuitable  soils  it  remains  small  in  size,  and  usually 
decays  at  an  early  age,  producing  timber  of  little  value. 
It  becomes  black-hearted  under  such  circumstances  before 
it  reaches  fifty  or  sixty  years  old. 

Ash  is  injured  when  young  by  late  spring  frosts  in  low- 
lying  situations,  and  here  requires  nurses  for  its  protection. 
The  terminal  bud  is  often  destroyed,  and  forked  growth 
results.  No  tree  suffers  more  from  rabbits  than  ash ; 
and  the  cultivation  of  this  species  is  impossible  where 
rabbits  are  numerous,  unless  stringent  measures  are 
adopted  to  kill  these  pests  and  keep  them  out  of  the 
plantations. 

Ash  should  be  regularly  thinned  in  order  to  give  the 
best  trees  the  requisite  amount  of  light  and  space.  Such 
thinnings  are  generally  saleable,  as  young  ash  provides 
useful  wood.  Felling  may  take  place  when  the  trees  are 
60  to  80  years  old  or  earlier;  and  if  gradually  carried 
out,  the  old  stand  may  be  replaced  by  the  seedlings 
which  have  usually  sprung  up,  and  natural  regeneration 
be  easily  effected.  In  other  words,  when  a  group  of  ash 
is  felled,  planting  is  rarely  necessary,  as  the  self-sown 
seedlings  can  be  utilised  to  form  the  new  crop. 


152  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

As  ash  trees  approaching  maturity  stand  far  apart,  the 
volume  of  timber  per  acre  is  small  when  compared  with  the 
yield  of  shade-bearing  trees.  Few  actual  measurements  of 
well-stocked  stands  of  ash  have  been  made  in  this  country ; 
but  it  is  the  yield  from  thinnings  that  helps  to  make  the 
returns  satisfactory.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  annual  increment 
of  the  volume  of  ash  timber — final  crop  and  thinnings  being 
added  together — ever  exceeds  in  England  over  30  to  40 
cubic  feet  (quarter-girth  measurement).  Stands  of  white 
ash  in  the  United  States  average  at  70  years  old,  per 
acre,  on  first  quality  soils,  5600  cubic  feet  of  timber  over 
3  inches  in  diameter,  or  an  average  annual  increment  of 
80  cubic  feet  (quarter-girth  measurement)  per  acre.  The 
plots  which  gave  these  results  were,  however,  fully-stocked 
natural  stands  on  alluvial  land,  much  superior  to  any  soil 
on  which  ash  would  be  planted  in  England,  Though  the 
volume  in  England  is  small,  it  must  be  remembered  that  there 
is  no  wood  in  which  there  is  less  waste  than  ash,  as  even 
the  earliest  thinnings  can  be  used.  The  faster  ash  is  grown, 
tlie  better  is  the  quality  of  the  timber  ;  hence  the  importance 
of  selecting  for  this  species  the  best  sites  in  any  planting 
area. 

Oak. — As  is  well  known,  there  are  two  distinct  species 
of  native  oak,  different  in  their  habitats  and  in  their  sylvi- 
cultural  requirements.  The  pedunculate  oak  needs  for  its 
proper  development  great  depth  of  soil,  associated  with 
a  large  content  of  water ;  while  the  sessile  oak  is  satisfied 
with  a  shallower  soil  containing  a  lesser  supply  of  water. 
The  pedunculate  oak  originally  covered  with  forests  the 
clays,  loams,  and  deep  sands  of  the  southern  and  midland 
counties  of  England,  and  is  now  dominant  in  the  coppice- 
with-standards  woods  which  prevail  in  these  counties.  The 
original  pedunculate  oak  forests  in  the  alluvial  tracts  along 
the  great  rivers  disappeared  at  an  early  period.  The  sessile 
oak  is  now  met  with  in  Wales,  in  the  south-west  and  north 
of  England,  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  it  thrives  on  the 
thin  soils  which  rest  on  the  palaeozoic  and  igneous  rocks. 


TKEES  FOE  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS    153 

It  is  more  a  tree  of  the  hills  than  the  other  species, 
ascending  in  the  Pennines  to  1000  feet.  It  grows  fairly 
well  on  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  at  moderate  elevations. 

Oak  is  a  deep-rooting  species,  which  makes  poor  growth 
on  shallow  soils.  It  succeeds  best  in  good  loam  and  in  deep 
alluvial  ground.  It  will  grow  on  stiff  clays,  but  not  at 
a  fast  rate.  It  bears  inundation  well.  Eequiring  con- 
siderable warmth,  oak  becomes  stunted  at  high  elevations, 
and  succeeds  better  on  southern  than  on  northern  aspects. 

Oak,  once  it  has  passed  the  young  stage,  needs  much 
space  and  light,  and  its  rate  of  growth  on  all  but  the  best 
and  deepest  soils  is  slow.  It  is  late  in  forming  heartwood, 
and  its  thinnings  are  of  little  value.  The  tree  takes  many 
years  to  mature ;  and  when  it  is  ripe  for  felling,  usually  in 
this  country  at  100  to  120  years,  there  are  comparatively 
few  stems  to  the  acre.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  its 
cultivation  holds  out  little  inducement  to  private  land- 
owners, as  the  money  return  of  an  oak  plantation  is  usually 
less  than  2  per  cent  and  payable  to  one's  heirs.  Oak 
should  nevertheless  be  planted  in  suitable  situations  by  the 
State  and  by  Municipalities,  who  are  bound  to  provide  for 
the  future  needs  of  the  community.  No  wood  can  replace 
that  of  oak.  It  is  indispensable,  as  it  combines  every  good 
quality,  strength,  size,  durability,  and  lightness  in  an  un- 
common degree.  In  lowland  districts,  where  the  soil  is 
deep  enough,  plantations  in  which  oak  forms  a  considerable 
percentage  are  advisable  on  land  set  apart  for  afforestation. 
It  should  never  be  planted  pure,  on  account  of  its  inability 
to  protect  the  soil  once  it  has  reached  the  pole  stage.  A 
mixed  wood  of  oak  and  beech,  the  latter  in  a  proportion 
varying  from  10  to  30  per  cent,  will,  it  is  well  known, 
produce  a  considerably  greater  volume  of  timber  than  if 
the  oak  were  grown  by  itself.  Larch  may  also  be  used  as 
a  nurse  on  account  of  its  early  thinnings,  and  on  good  oak 
soil  the  mixture  of  oak,  beech,  and  larch  will  be  successful. 
On  clay  soil,  oak  and  hornbeam  can  be  tried.  English 
elm,  chestnut,  and  ash  may  also  be  planted  in  suitable 
spots  in  any  plantation,  of  which  the  main  components  are 


154  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

oak,   larch,   and    beech.       Oak    is   also   a  valuable   tree  in 
coppice  with  standards. 

Of  the  species  of  oak  which  have  been  introduced  into 
this  country,  the  common  evergreen  oak  (Quercus.Ilex)  is  of 
no  value  in  ordinary  plantations,  but  is  useful  in  wind 
screens  by  the  sea.  The  Turkey  oak  (Quercus  Cerris)  grows 
faster  in  England  than  the  common  oak,  especially  on  sandy 
soils ;  but  its  cultivation,  except  in  shelter  belts,  cannot  be 
recommended,  as  the  timber  which  it  produces  is  of  little 
value.  The  American  red  oak  {Quercus  rubra)  is  also  fast 
in  growth  on  deep  sandy  soils  in  the  south  of  England,  and 
is  worth  introducing  into  the  heaths  of  Surrey  and  Sussex, 
where  it  could  be  grown  in  groups  amidst  the  Scots  pines. 
The  wood  is  strong  and  elastic,  and  of  considerable  value, 
but  is  not  very  durable  when  used  out  of  doors. 

Alder. — The  common  alder  (Alnus  glutinosa)  is  a  native 
species,  useful  in  wet  situations,  either  as  a  large  tree  or 
for  forming  remunerative  coppice.  It  bears  more  water 
in  the  soil  than  almost  any  other  European  tree ;  and  is 
usually  met  with  either  pure,  or  mixed  with  willows,  near 
streams,  rivers,  and  lakes,  on  alluvial  soil,  the  surface  of 
which  is  only  a  few  inches  above  the  level  of  the  ground 
water.  Such  land,  if  it  can  be  drained  a  little,  will  bear 
good  ash.  Alder  thrives  in  marshy  or  fenny  land,  in  which 
the  contained  water  is  alkaline  and  rich  in  lime  and  other 
salts ;  but  it  does  not  succeed  in  wild  undrained  peat  bog, 
full  of  water,  poor  in  mineral  salts,  and  acid  in  reaction. 
Alder  on  good  soil  bears  a  considerable  amount  of  shade, 
and  may  be  introduced  into  wet  places  in  low-lying  planta- 
tions. At  high  elevations  wet  spots,  if  possible,  should  be 
drained  and  planted  with  spruce,  or  else  be  left  alone. 

Alder  may  be  used  as  a  nurse  for  other  trees  in  damp 
low -lying  areas,  subject  to  spring  frosts.  It  grows  rapidly 
in  the  young  stage,  and  protects  conifers  like  spruce  and 
silver  fir,  which  are  slow-growing  at  first  and  liable  to 
injury  from  frost  in  such  situations.  The  alder  is  cut  out 
gradually,  as  soon  as  the  spruce  or  silver  fir  increases  rapidly 


TREES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    155 

in  height  growth  and  gets  above  the  frost  zone.  Alder  has 
one  great  advantage  in  that  it  is  scarcely  ever  attacked  by- 
rabbits,  and  may  be  planted  without  the  expense  of  wire 
netting.  It  has  been  found  useful  in  planting  pit-mounds, 
slag-heaps,  etc.;  and  this  illustrates  the  fact  that  alder,  while 
most  successful  in  wet  soils,  is  not  confined  to  that  situation, 
as  it  grows  even  in  chalk. 

The  wood  of  alder  is  at  the  present  time  of  little  im- 
portance ;  but  it  is  still  used  for  making  clog-soles,  backs  of 
brushes,  mop  and  rake  handles,inferior  cigar  boxes,  hat  blocks, 
etc.    It  is  very  durable  under  water,  and  may  be  used  for  piles. 

Grey  Alder. — The  grey  or  white  alder  {Alnus  incana) 
is  not  a  native  of  Britain,  but  is  widely  spread  on  the 
continent,  attaining  its  largest  size,  about  70  feet  in  height, 
in  Sweden.  It  is  considerably  hardier  than  the  common 
alder,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  vigorous  growth  in  youth 
and  its  indifference  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  It  grows 
on  gravel  and  on  cold  clay,  and  flourishes  in  the  frostiest 
localities.  It  is  used  in  the  Swiss  Alps  for  preliminary 
planting  in  difficult  situations  at  high  altitudes,  where  as 
soon  as  it  has  formed  canopy,  it  is  underplanted  with  beech 
or  silver  fir,  which  are  destined  to  be  the  final  crop.  It 
may  be  used  for  a  similar  purpose  in  this  country,  especi- 
ally for  killing  grass  in  low-lying  frosty  situations.  When 
this  is  effected,  the  grey  alder  may  be  heavily  thinned,  and 
common  spruce  or  Sitka  spruce  be  planted  under  the 
protection  of  the  trees  that  are  left.  Grey  alder  can 
also  be  used  in  planting  pit-mounds,  gravelly  borders  of 
streams,  disused  quarries,  etc.  As  a  permanent  crop,  it  is 
best  treated  as  coppice  on  a  long  rotation,  of  about 
30  years.  Grey  alder  has  been  used  with  great  success 
in  the  planting  of  pit-mounds  in  Belgium  and  France,  but 
has  not  done  quite  so  well  as  the  common  alder  on  the 
mounds  in  Staffordshire.  Here  it  is,  however,  making  good 
fertilising  nodules  on  its  roots,  and  is  expected  ultimately 
to  thrive  well.  See  Martineau,  in  British  Association  Report, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  1916,  p.  494. 


156  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

Sycamore. — The  sycamore  or  great  maple  is  a  native  of 
the  mountains  of  Central  Europe,  and  is  an  extremely  hardy 
tree.  It  never  suffers  from  frost,  and  bears  Mund,  whether 
close  to  the  sea  or  inland,  better  than  most  broad-leaved 
trees.  Quercus  Ilex,  however,  resists  the  sea  breeze  better 
in  Norfolk.  Sycamore  is  rarely  injured  by  insects  or  fungi, 
and  is  not  attacked  by  rabbits  in  most  districts.  It  re- 
generates itself  freely  from  seed.  It  bears  moderate  shade 
when  young,  but  once  it  has  passed  the  pole  stage,  requires 
considerj^ble  light  and  space,  and  becomes  unable  to  protect 
the  soil.  Hence  it  is  scarcely  ever  found  growing  pure  in 
masses,  but  occurs  scattered  amidst  other  trees  in  conti- 
nental forests.  It  needs  a  good  loam  for  its  best  develop- 
ment, making  poor  growth  on  sand,  gravel,  or  heavy  clay. 
It  is  rather  partial  to  limestone  soils.  Examples  of  remark- 
able growth  of  sycamore  scattered  amidst  conifer  plantations 
on  oolite  limestone  in  the  Cotswolds  are  given  in  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Forestry,  iii.  281  (1909);  in  one  plantation, 
25  years  old,  sycamore  averaged  40  feet  high  and  19  inches 
in  girth,  as  compared  with  beech,  38  feet  high  and  10^ 
inches  in  girth.  It  can  be  planted  higher  up  in  the 
mountains  than  beech,  and  is  well  adapted  for  growing  in 
groups  or  in  bands  amidst  the  conifer  masses,  acting  as  a 
wind-break.  It  is  very  rarely  blown  down  by  gales,  and  is 
of  considerable  use  in  shelter  belts.  It  should  be  grown  in 
plantations  wlierever  there  are  patches  of  loamy  soil  too  dry 
for  ash.  Here,  mixed  with  beech,  it  would  develop  a  tall 
straight  stem,  free  from  branches  or  knots  for  a  considerable 
height  above  the  ground.  Such  stems,  when  clean  and  of 
a  large  size,  are  of  great  value  as  rollers  in  cotton  mills. 
The  wood  of  the  sycamore  is  also  used  for  furniture,  wood 
ware,  etc. ;  and  the  cultivation  of  this  tree  should  be 
encouraged. 

Norway   Maple This   species    is    more    widely    spread 

throughout  Europe  in  the  wild  state  than  the  sycamore, 
occurring  far  north  in  Scandinavia  and  Finland,  and  south- 
wards in  the  Pyrenees  and  Caucasus.     It  is  like  the  syca- 


TKEES  FOE  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    157 

more  in  its  sylvicultural  requirements,  being  equally  hardy 
and  wind-resisting ;  but  it  is  satisfied  with  a  poorer  soil,  and 
succeeds  better  in  wet  situations.  Norway  maple  grows 
fast  when  young,  but  later  slackens  in  growth  and  seldom 
attains  a  large  size.  There  is  little  room  for  it  in  ordinary 
plantations,  but  it  may  be  used  along  rides,  and  in  shelter 
belts,  especially  near  the  sea.  It  is  very  ornamental  and 
is  well  adapted  for  planting  in  the  streets  of  towns. 

Hornbeam. — This  species  occurs  in  woods  in  Essex, 
Kent,  and  Herts,  where  it  is  often,  pure  or  mixed  with  oak, 
dominant  on  clay  and  loamy  soils.  As  a  rule  it  is  a  tree 
of  small  size,  and  only  suitable  for  coppice.  It  is  very 
hardy,  not  being  affected  by  spring  or  autumn  frosts,  and 
grows  fairly  well  on  cold  clay  soils.  It  bears  shade  and 
improves  the  soil  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  beech ;  and  in 
situations  unfavourable  to  the  latter  species,  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  it.  It  can  be  used,  for  example,  for  planting  with 
other  trees  as  a  nurse,  in  cold  low-lying  situations  and  on 
heavy  clay  soils.  It  may  also  be  used  for  underplanting 
where  beech  would  fail.  The  wood  makes  excellent  fuel, 
but  its  other  uses  are  of  a  minor  character. 

Chestnut. — The  sweet  chestnut  {Castanea  sativa),  a  native 
of  the  Mediterranean  region,  is  limited  for  use  as  a  forest 
tree  in  this  country  to  mild  districts.  It  grows  best  in  the 
southern  and  midland  counties  of  England,  in  Wales,  and  in 
the  maritime  counties  of  the  south-east  of  Ireland.  It  re- 
sists wind  very  badly,  and  becomes  stunted  in  height  when 
grown  in  exposed  situations.  In  wet  soils,  in  soils  contain- 
ing more  than  a  small  percentage  of  lime,  on  stiff  clays,  or 
in  frosty  localities,  it  never  thrives.  Chestnut  grows  re- 
markably fast  on  deep  sandy  soils,  especially  those  contain- 
ing some  loam ;  and  succeeds  on  sandy  gravels  and  on 
clayey  loams,  provided  they  have  sufficient  depth.  In  the 
south  of  England  it  flourishes  on  sandy  soils  that  are  too 
dry  for  larch,  but  when  sandy  soil  contains  a  fair  amount 
of  moisture,  a  mixture  of  larch  and  chestnut  usually  does 
well.      The  great  advantage  of  chestnut  is  its  production  of 


158  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

a  large  volume  of  excellent  timber  on  a  short  rotation. 
The  wood,  moreover,  is  useful  in  all  stages  of  the  growth  of 
the  tree,  so  that  thinnings  are  valuable.  Chestnut  coppice 
is  also  very  productive.  The  wood  is  nearly  equal  to  that 
of  oak  in  strength  and  durability,  heartwood  being  formed 
very  early,  while  the  proportion  of  sapwood  is  very 
small.  It  is  extremely  useful  for  fencing,  building,  furni- 
ture, etc. 

In  suitable  soils  and  situations,  the  production  of  timber 
by  this  species  is  very  great.  At  Witley,  Worcestershire,  a 
plantation  67  years  old  was  78  feet  in  height  and  yielded 
3800  cubic  feet  (quarter-girth  measurement)  of  timber  per 
acre,  equivalent  to  an  average  annual  increment  of  56  cubic 
feet  per  acre.  At  Highnam,  Gloucester,  a  plantation  60 
years  old  attained  73  feet  in  height  and  contained  3262 
cubic  feet  per  acre,  equal  to  an  average  annual  increment 
of  55  cubic  feet  per  acre. 

Old  trees,  when  felled,  are  often  found  to  be  affected 
with  ringshake,  which  makes  the  timber  useless,  except  for 
fuel.  This  defect  is  generally  ascribed  to  unsuitable  soil  or 
long  rotation ;  but  is  really  due  to  the  occurrence,  during  the 
life  of  the  tree,  of  an  exceptionally  severe  winter,  when, 
with  a  great  fall  in  temperature,  the  tissue  inside  the  cam- 
bium layer  of  the  stem  becomes  frozen,  resulting  in  a 
rupture  which  shows  itself  later  as  ringshake.  Sound  old 
chestnut  is  common  in  the  milder  parts  of  Ireland.  At 
Westwick,  Norfolk,  ringshaken  chestnut,  7  0  years  old,  when 
felled,  showed  by  a  count  of  the  rings  on  the  stump  that 
the  main  shake  occurred  in  the  winter  1879-1880,  noted 
for  its  very  low  temperature  for  a  lengthened  period.  On  a 
pond  near  this  tree,  skating  was  carried  on  from  the  preced- 
ing Christmas  till  19th  March  1880.  In  one  butt  there 
was  an  additional  but  slighter  shake  in  1874—1875,  a  very 
severe  winter ;  while  in  another,  the  additional  shake  coin- 
cided with  1854-1855,  when  great  frost  occurred.  This 
liability  to  shake  in  severe  winters  makes  chestnut  an  un- 
reliable timber  tree  in  the  north  and  in  all  inland  districts. 
In  any  case,  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  too  long. 


TEEES  FOR  WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  159 

As  a  main  crop  it  is  ripe  for  felling  at  6  0  years  old  ;  and 
coppice  of  it  is  cut  every  1 5  years. 

Chestnut  has  a  very  limited  use  in  afforestation,  as  it 
can  only  be  grown  commercially  in  favoured  spots.  It  can 
rarely  be  planted  in  the  hills ;  and  is  quite  unsuitable  for 
low  damp  places  or  for  situations  that  are  exposed  to  wind. 

Chestnut  bears  shade  when  young ;  but  after  3  0  years 
requires  much  light  and  space.  It  may,  however,  be  grown 
as  a  pure  crop  on  suitable  sites  ;  but  the  stems  stand  far  apart, 
scarcely  exceeding  6  0  to  1 0  0  per  acre  on  good  soil  at  6  0  years 
old.  It  is  suitable  for  mixture  with  ash  or  larch,  if  the  soil 
suits  these  species.  In  such  mixtures,  the  chestnut  can  be 
cut  over  and  kept  as  coppice,  amongst  which  the  ash  and 
larch  will  grow  well  as  standards.  In  other  cases,  the  larch 
may  be  removed  as  thinnings,  and  the  chestnut  allowed  to 
remain.  In  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  vi.  20  (1912), 
there  is  a  description  of  a  very  successful  plantation  of 
larch  and  chestnut  on  heavy  loam  in  Gloucestershire ;  the 
trees  were  planted  6  feet  apart,  the  two  species  being  in 
alternate  rows. 

Elm. — None  of  the  species  of  elm  as  a  rule  form  pure 
woods,  but  are  almost  invariably  in  the  wild  state  scattered 
singly  or  in  small  groups  in  the  broad-leaved  forests.  Of 
the  various  species  in  this  country,  practically  only  the 
wych  elm  is  found  naturally  in  woods.  The  other  kinds 
are  seen  in  hedgerows,  parks,  or  avenues  ;  and  if,  as  is 
probable,  they  also  are  native,  the  original  forests  in  which 
they  grew  have  long  since  disappeared,  giving  place  to  farm 
land.  All  the  elms  bear  shade  in  youth,  but  later  they  re- 
quire considerable  light  and  space.  They  need  a  soil  of 
at  least  moderate  fertility  and  depth,  and  there  must  be 
sufficient  moisture.  Elms  are  quite  unsuitable  for  very  dry 
soils,  such  as  dry  sand,  stiff  clay,  or  thin  chalk.  The 
various  elms  have  marked  differences  in  their  climatic  re- 
quirements, which  will  be  pointed  out  in  the  following  brief 
account  of  each  species.  None,  however,  ascend  to  a  great 
elevation,  and  elms  are  not  grown  above  the  agrarian  zone. 


160  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Nevertheless,  their  extended  cultivation  is  of  considerable 
importance,  as  they  supply  a  useful  v^^ood,  always  in  demand 
for  local  purposes,  and  should  be  introduced  into  suitable 
spots  in  lowland  plantations. 

1.  Wych  elm  {Ulmus  montana)  occurs  wild  all  over 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  being  a  constant  companion  in 
woods  of  sessile  oak  on  siliceous  soils  and  of  ash  on  lime- 
stone soils.  It  is  much  less  exacting  in  its  demands  on 
soil  and  climate  than  the  other  species,  ascending  to  a  con- 
siderable height  in  the  mountains,  up  to  1000  feet  in  the 
Pennines.  It  is  very  hardy,  bears  wind  and  exposure  well, 
and  never  suffers  from  spring  frosts.  Wych  elm  requires 
much  light  and  space,  forming,  when  still  young,  a  large 
crown  with  wide-spreading  branches,  and  is  difficult  to 
grow  in  plantations  on  that  account.  It  can,  however,  be 
planted  with  beech  in  patches  in  woods  in  hilly  districts 
and  in  shelter  belts  which  are  alongside  conifer  plantations. 
It  is  the  only  elm  that  will  thrive  in  the  exposed  and  colder 
parts  of  Ireland,  and  in  most  districts  of  Scotland  and  the 
north  of  England.  It  is  easily  raised  from  seed  which 
ripens  in  most  years. 

2.  English  elm  {Ulmus  campestris)  is  a  native  of 
southern  England,  growing  in  hedgerows,  where  it  repro- 
duces itself  only  by  suckers,  as  fertile  seeds  are  never  borne 
by  the  tree  in  this  country.  It  is  common  in  the  Thames 
valley,  and  southward  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  westward  to 
Devon,  and  northward  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn  to 
Hereford,  Worcester,  and  Warwick.  Elsewhere  in  Britain 
and  Ireland  it  is  unknown  except  as  a  planted  tree,  being 
replaced  in  Cornwall  by  the  Cornish  elm.  On  the  continent 
of  Europe  it  occurs  only  in  Spain.  It  requires  for  its  de- 
velopment a  warm  climate  and  unexposed  position  ;  and  in 
northern  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  never 
thrives  except  in  sheltered  favoured  spots.  It  is  unsuitable 
for  elevated  land  in  any  part  of  the  country. 

Its  main  value  is  for  planting  in  hedges  around  pasture 
land  in  the  southern  and  midland  counties  of  England,  as 
it  does  little  injury  to  grass,  and  produces  a  considerable 


TKEES  FOE  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    161 

volume  of  timber,  which  is  always  in  local  demand.  The 
wood  differs  from  that  of  the  other  elms  in  its  dark- 
red  heartwood,  and  is  of  especial  value  for  making  coffins, 
boxes,  furniture,  etc. ;  and  is  of  service  also,  like  wych  elm, 
for  hubs  and  felloes  of  wheels,  in  boat-building,  and  for  uses 
under  water. 

The  English  elm  is  rarely  planted  in  woods,  probably 
on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  procuring  it,  as  seedlings  are 
unknown  and  grafted  trees  are  objectionable.  Suckers, 
however,  can  be  dug  up  wherever  large  trees  occur,  and  be 
used  for  planting  when  oak  and  other  broad-leaved  planta- 
tions are  being  established.  It  grows  very  fast  in  the 
south  of  England,  and  a  sprinkling  of  it  in  such  plantations 
would  be  advantageous.  In  the  Forest  of  Dean,  a  mixed 
oak  and  larch  plantation,  aged  39  years,  in  which  there 
were  a  few  English  elms,  showed  the  following  average 
measurements:  larch,  59  feet  high,  41  inches  girth  at 
breast  height;  English  elm,  54  feet  high,  37  inches  girth; 
and  oak,  40  feet  high,  20  inches  girth.  These  comparative 
measurements  show  the  remarkably  fast  growth  of  English 
elm  in  good  woodland  soil. 

3.  Smooth-leaved  elm  {Ulmus  nitens).  This  species  is 
common  in  France,  Germany,  Austria,  etc.,  where  it  is 
found  wild,  mixed  with  common  (pedunculate)  oak,  in  the 
forests  bordering  on  the  great  rivers.  Seedlings  of  it  are 
imported  from  French  nurseries  under  the  name  Ulmus 
campestris,  but  are  totally  different  from  the  English  elm. 
Smooth-leaved  elm  is  wide-spreading  in  habit,  and  on  that 
account  is  often  called  "  wych  elm  "  erroneously  in  southern 
and  eastern  England,  especially  in  localities  where  the  true 
Ulmus  montana  is  rare  or  absent.  Smooth-leaved  elm  may 
be  planted  in  woods,  similarly  to  the  English  elm,  but  will 
not  produce  as  good  timber  or  grow  as  fast  as  the  latter  in 
southern  England. 

4.  Cornish  elm  {Ulmus  strida).  This  is  a  form  of  the 
smooth-leaved  elm,  with  smaller,  firmer  leaves  and  an 
upright  habit,  which  is  confined  to  Cornwall  and  Devon. 
It  succeeds    better    than    the   English    elm    on    poor    and 


162  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

shallow  soils,  and  is  remarkably  resistant  to  wind.  It  is, 
however,  slow  in  growth  under  these  circumstances,  pro- 
ducing a  remarkably  tough  wood.  Cornish  elm  is  suitable 
for  planting  in  shelter  belts  near  the  sea,  and  may  be 
introduced  into  broad-leaved  woods  in  Wales,  Ireland,  and 
the  west  of  Scotland. 

5.  Dutch  elm  {Ulmus  major).  The  origin  of  this  tree  is 
obscure.  It  is  now  widely  spread  in  hedgerows  in  England 
from  Cornwall  to  Yorkshire.  It  produces  suckers  freely, 
but  the  seed  is  absolutely  unfertile.  This  elm  grows  fairly 
well  in  clay  soil,  and  produces  a  soft  wood,  which  is  readily 
worked  by  the  carpenter,  and  is  used  for  purposes  where 
strength  is  not  required. 

6.  Huntingdon  elm  {Ulmus  vegeta).  This  elm  is  of 
hybrid  origin,  and  is  remarkably  fast  in  growth.  So  far  as 
I  know,  it  has  never  been  planted  as  a  woodland  tree ;  but 
it  deserves  a  trial  in  plantations  at  low  elevations,  where, 
mixed  with  beech  in  small  groups,  it  would  probably 
develop  a  tall,  straight,  clean  stem.  Planted  in  the  open,  it 
tends  to  be  wide-spreading  in  habit. 

Birch. — The  birch,  being  a  light-demanding  tree  with 
very  sparse  foliage,  does  not  improve  the  soil  to  any  con- 
siderable degree  ;  and  its  production  of  timber  per  acre  is 
meagre.  Nevertheless  its  use  in  forestry  is  not  un- 
important, as  it  is  our  hardiest  tree,  capable  of  growing  in 
the  poorest  soils,  and  reproducing  itself  with  the  greatest 
ease.  Natural  woods  of  birch  occur  at  higher  elevation 
than  those  of  any  other  species,  ascending  in  some  Highland 
glens  to  2000  feet.  In  the  Pennines,  birch  forms  woods 
up  to  1250  feet,  and  scrub  as  high  as  1500  feet  elevation. 
The  ground  vegetation  in  such  wood  or  scrub  differs  little 
from  that  of  the  adjoining  hill  pasture  or  moorland ;  and 
may  consist  of  wiry  grasses,  heather,  and  bilberry,  or  be 
wet  moor  with  peat  plants.  Birch  thus  occupies  parts  of 
the  hill  pasture  and  heather  moor  zones ;  and  would  doubt- 
less spread  over  much  more  extensive  areas,  but  that  it  is 
kept  down  by  grazing,  as  sheep  destroy  the  seedling  trees. 


TEEES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    163 

Natural  birch  woods  as  a  rule  contain  little  timber.  Those 
in  Glen  Mor  were  estimated  to  produce  when  felled  only 
10  tons  of  wood  per  acre,  and  half  a  ton  of  twigs,  the 
latter  being  used  for  burning  the  surface  scale  from  steel 
plates  in  foundries. 

The  value  of  birch  woods  lies  in  the  protection  which 
they  may  afford  to  plantations  of  conifers,  lying  alongside 
them  at  a  lower  level.  With  the  aid  of  birch,  it  would  be 
possible  perhaps  to  raise  the  timber  line  200  to  300  feet 
higher  in  many  mountainous  districts  in  the  British  Isles. 
Any  natural  scrub  or  wood  of  birch  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
high-lying  conifer  plantation  should  be  enclosed,  and  be 
carefully  preserved  as  a  shelter  belt.  Birch  might  also  be 
sown  freely  over  wide  bands  of  ground  immediately  above 
the  sites  of  contemplated  plantations  at  high  elevations,  in 
cases  where  the  ground  could  be  prepared  for  the  seed 
cheaply  and  be  enclosed  at  a  trifling  cost. 

Birch  is  also  very  useful  as  a  nurse  tree,  in  frosty 
localities  and  in  exposed  situations,  where  damage  to  young 
conifers  is  to  be  feared ;  and  it  may  be  planted  in  advance 
for  this  purpose.  Thickets  of  self-sown  birch  thinned  out 
to  five  or  six  feet  apart  will  serve  as  nurses  for  spruce 
seedlings,  as  the  latter  species  usually  succeeds  in  places 
where  birch  is  able  to  regenerate  itself  freely.  Birch 
can  be  very  cheaply  planted  by  the  slitting  method. 
In  plantations  on  good  sites  and  favourable  situations, 
birch  is  a  weed,  and  should  be  eliminated  as  soon  as 
possible. 

There  are  two  distinct  species  of  birch,  differing  in  their 
demand  on  moisture  in  the  soil ;  and  it  is  a  great  mistake 
to  plant  them  indiscriminately.  (1)  Silver  birch  {Betula 
verrucosa),  with  glabrous  twigs,  pendulous  branches,  and 
very  white  bark,  is  the  faster-growing  and  larger  tree  of  the 
two  species.  It  succeeds  in  a  dry  climate,  and  thrives  best 
on  a  moderately  moist  soil,  and  will  not  grow  on  marshy 
ground  or  in  an  undrained  peat-moss.  It  succeeds  on  chalk, 
where  the  other  species  remains  stunted  or  dies.  This 
species  occurs  in  Strathspey,  Deeside,  and  Tayside,  which  is 


164  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

a  distinct  geographical  area  characterised  by  wild  forests  of 
Scots  pine  and  of  Betula  vemicosa. 

(2)  Red  birch  {Betula  puhescens),  with  hairy  twigs  and 
spreading  or  ascending  branches,  is  found  on  wetter  soils 
and  in  moister  climates  than  the  silver  birch,  and  is  the 
prevailing  species  in  Ireland  and  the  west  of  Scotland.  It 
is  a  more  rigid  tree,  of  less  size,  and  with  a  darker  bark. 
It  will  grow  on  marshy  ground  and  wet  peat,  but  of  course 
under  such  circumstances  is  only  a  small  tree. 

Birch  is  useful  for  temporary  fencing,  and  lasts  a  long 
time  when  creosoted.  It  is  also  valuable  for  pitwood, 
furniture,  bobbins,  spools,  etc. 

Poplar. — Of  the  numerous  kinds  of  poplar,  those  of 
interest  to  the  forester  are  grey  poplar,  aspen,  and  black 
Italian  poplar. 

1.  Black  Italian  poplar  (Fopulus  serotina)  is  of  hybrid 
origin,  being  the  result  of  a  cross  between  the  European 
Fopulus  nigra  and  the  American  Fopulus  deltoidea,  two 
wild  species.  Black  Italian  poplar  is  always  propagated 
by  cuttings  or  sets,  and  bears  male  flowers.  It  is  the  latest 
of  all  the  poplars  in  coming  into  leaf  Its  hybrid  origin 
accounts  for  its  astonishing  vigour.  Grown  in  the  open,  it 
produces  a  larger  volume  of  timber  and  comes  to  maturity 
earlier  than  any  other  broad-leaved  tree  in  this  country. 
In  good  situations,  it  reaches  100  to  120  feet  in  height 
in  50  or  60  years,  a  single  stem  often  containing  100 
cubic  feet  of  timber  at  that  age.  It  grows  freely  in 
most  soils,  and  is  extremely  hardy,  resisting  frosts  at  all 
seasons.  Except  in  sheltered  positions,  it  suffers  from  wind 
in  Ireland  and  on  the  western  seaboard  of  Scotland  and 
Wales  ;  but  in  England  and  in  the  other  parts  of  Scotland  and 
Wales  it  bears  a  fair  amount  of  exposure.  The  main  value 
of  the  tree  lies  in  its  capacity  for  growth  in  situations  and 
soils  where  ordinary  trees  fail.  It  succeeds  in  cold,  wet, 
and  undrained  valleys  and  meadows;  and  thrives  even  on 
wet  clay,  provided  the  stagnant  water  is  drained  off.  It 
grows  well  on  shallow  bogland  and  on  gravelly  soils. 


TKEES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    165 

With  all  these  merits,  there  are  difficulties  in  the 
cultivation  of  black  Italian  poplar  as  a  forest  tree  in 
plantations,  whether  pure  or  mixed.  Like  all  poplars,  it  is 
unable,  after  the  first  few  years,  to  bear  the  slightest  shade, 
the  whole  crown  of  foliage  requiring  full  light ;  and  each 
stem  in  consequence  needs  a  large  space  for  its  proper 
development.  Mixed  with  other  species  in  a  wood,  black 
Italian  poplar  ultimately  occupies  an  enormous  area,  over- 
topping and  injuring  the  neighbouring  trees.  It  is  useless 
to  plant  it  with  other  species,  unless  the  latter  is  to 
constitute  an  underwood.  It  has  been  suggested  to  plant 
poplars  15  to  20  feet  apart,  and  to  fill  up  the  intervals 
with  alders ;  but  the  latter  would  make  poor  growth  in 
this  mixture  unless  the  soil  were  good  and  deep.  In  a 
pure  plantation  of  black  Italian  poplar,  only  the  outer  trees 
that  are  fully  exposed  to  the  light  make  large  dimensions, 
the  interior  trees  remaining  small  in  diameter  and  of  little 
use  as  timber.  This  might  be  obviated  by  severe  thinnings  ; 
but  these  would  be  of  no  saleable  value,  and  the  number  of 
stems  left  standing  would  be  so  reduced  as  to  yield  only  a 
moderate  volume  per  acre.  Large  plantations  of  poplar  are 
rarely  seen  in  this  country,  and  actual  measurements  are 
still  rarer.  At  Benefield,  Northamptonshire,  321-  acres  of 
strong  clay  land,  practically  useless  for  agriculture,  were 
planted  in  1887  with  black  Italian  poplar,  538  to  the  acre. 
In  1916  there  were  206  trees  per  acre  surviving,  which 
when  felled  averaged  45  feet  of  timber  length  and  24 
inches  girth  at  breast  height,  the  total  volume  being  1300 
cubic  feet  (quarter -girth  measurement)  per  acre,  or  an 
average  annual  increment  of  45  cubic  feet  per  acre. 

Plantations  of  black  Italian  poplar  contain  a  much 
smaller  volume  of  timber  than  is  generally  expected ;  and 
in  land  where  any  of  the  vigorous  conifers,  such  as  Sitka 
spruce,  Japanese  larch,  etc.,  can  be  grown,  cultivation  of 
poplars  would  be  a  failure  financially.  Black  Italian  poplar 
should  be  restricted  to  situations  where  it  is  impossible  to 
establish  conifer  plantations  ;  and  in  such  cases  the  best 
method  is  a  combination  of  meadow  or  pasture  with  poplars 


166  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

planted  15  to  20  feet  apart,  in  single  or  double  lines, 
around  small  fields.  The  crop  of  grass  or  hay  is  not  per- 
ceptibly diminished ;  and  a  large  volume  of  timber  of 
considerable  size  and  value  results  from  the  growth  of  the 
trees  thus  isolated. 

The  wood  of  the  black  Italian  poplar  is  tough  and  light, 
resisting  wear  well.  It  is  in  demand  for  special  purposes, 
as  for  brake  and  slipper  blocks,  and  for  polishing  plate-glass 
in  the  course  of  its  manufacture.  It  is  used  for  beds  of 
waggons  and  carts  and  for  packing-cases.  Being  uninflam- 
mable to  a  considerable  degree,  it  is  suitable  for  flooring  in 
factories  and  other  buildings.  It  is  now  utilised  in  the 
making  of  plywood.  When  well  seasoned  it  is  capable  of  a 
fine  polish,  and  is  useful  for  making  cheap  furniture. 

There  are  several  other  hybrid  poplars  which  have  not 
yet  been  extensively  planted  in  this  country.  The  best 
of  these  are  :  (1)  Eucalyptus  poplar  {Populus  regenerata, 
Fig.  32),  similar  in  foliage  to  the  black  Italian  poplar,  but 
bearing  female  flowers.  (2)  Populus  E^tgenei,  narrower  in 
the  crown  than  black  Italian  poplar ;  it  makes  rapid  growth 
on  sandy  soil  at  Kew  (Fig.  33).  (3)  Populus  rohusta,  with 
a  very  narrow  crown,  thriving  at  Glasnevin.  This  promises 
to  resist  wind  better  than  the  other  poplars.  The  history 
and  description  of  these  poplars  is  fully  given  by  the  writer 
in  GardcTiers  Chronicle,  Iv.  pp.  1,  46,  66  (1914),  and  in 
Trans.  Roy.  Scot.  Arhor.  Soc.  xxx.  pp.  14-27  (1916). 

2.  Grey  poplar  {Populus  canesce7is).  This  tree  is  not  so 
fast  in  growth  as  black  Italian  poplar ;  but  it  produces  a 
better  quality  of  timber,  light  in  weight  and  very  strong, 
useful  for  carriage  building.  This  poplar  is  very  hardy  and 
may  be  planted  along  water  courses  and  in  frosty  meadows. 
It  is  not  suitable  for  plantations,  but  makes  a  splendid 
standard  in  coppice  on  stiff  clay  soil.  White  poplar 
(Populus  alha)  is  more  sensitive  to  wind  and  frost  than  grey 
poplar,  and  does  not  attain  so  large  a  size  in  England.  In 
most  situations  grey  poplar  is  to  be  preferred  as  being  the 
more  vigorous  tree. 

3.  As^en  (Popidus  tremula).     The  aspen  is  a  native  tree 


Fkj.  30. — Thnya  ynjunlta  I'lduUiliou  at  I'-enmore. 
(From  I Uirdctiers'  Chrunick,  20th  ilarch  lOlo.) 


SI.  — Thuya  gigantea  as  shelter  tree  on  plantation  margin. 

(From  Transactions  Royal  Scottish  Arborieultural  Society,  vol.  28.) 


Flu.  32. — roiiiilas  rcgenerata  a,t  Glasnevin. 
(Fi'om  T ran sixot ions  Hoyal  Scott ish  ArboricuUiiral  Society,  vol.  30.) 


Fk;.  3-3. — Fo^juhis  Euyeuel  at  Kew. 
(From  T I ojisiul ions  Royal  Srutt ish  Arhoricultuml  Socinti/,  vol.  30.) 


TREES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    167 

of  small  size,  ascending  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  to  the 
upper  limit  of  trees,  in  Braemar  to  1600  feet.  It  propa- 
gates itself  freely  by  suckers,  and  is  absolutely  hardy.  In 
very  exposed  situations  it  becomes  a  stunted  bush.  It 
grows  on  drier  soils  than  other  poplars,  but  produces  in 
such  conditions  only  a  very  small  amount  of  timber. 
Aspen  may  be  tried  on  absolutely  waste  ground  at  high 
elevations,  where  there  is  not  much  exposure  ;  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  would  repay  the  expense  of  planting.  In 
Sweden,  on  the  best  forest  soil,  pure  aspen  woods  produce, 
at  50  years  old,  2240  cubic  feet  (quarter-girth  measure- 
ment) per  acre,  or  an  average  annual  increment  of  44  cubic 
feet  per  acre,  the  stems  averaging  8  inches  in  diameter.  Of 
the  total  volume  of  wood  at  this  age  and  size,  about  40  per 
cent  is  suitable  for  making  matches.  See  Meddel.  Fran 
Statens  Skogsfbrsoksanstalf,  1917,  pp.  1205-1219. 

Willow. — Three  species  and  a  hybrid  are  of  interest  to 
foresters : 

1.  Sallow  or  goat  willow  {Salix  caprea).  This  is  a  small 
tree,  rarely  exceeding  30  feet  in  height  and  1  foot  in 
diameter,  common  in  woods  and  waste  places.  It  is  often 
met  with  as  natural  seedlings  in  plantations,  where  it  is 
looked  upon  as  a  weed  and  is  speedily  removed  in  thinnings. 
Sallow  has  been  used  for  fixing  loose  and  shifting  soil  on 
river  embankments.  The  wood  is  useful  for  hurdles  and 
fencing. 

2,  3.  White  willow  (Salix  alba)  and  crack  willow  (Salix 
fragilis).  These  two  species  grow  to  a  large  size,  and  occur 
on  the  banks  of  rivers,  streams,  and  lakes,  being  rare  in  the 
interior  of  woods  and  forests.  They  require  much  light 
and  space,  being  similar  in  this  respect  to  the  poplars. 
They  do  not  thrive  at  high  elevations,  and  refuse  to  grow 
in  acid  peaty  soil.  They  are  useful  for  reclaiming  and 
holding  the  soil  along  streams,  and  can  be  planted  in  marshy 
ground,  which  they  help  to  drain.  White  willow  grows 
well  near  the  sea,  and  may  be  employed  for  making  cheap 
shelter  belts.     Like  all  the  willows,  it  is  readily  propagated 


168  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

by  cuttings,  and  the  expense  is  slight.  The  wood  of  both 
white  willow  and  crack  willow  is  tough,  and  indents  with- 
out splintering  from  blows  or  hard  usage.  It  can  be  used 
for  brakes,  carts,  hurdles,  roofing,  and  flooring. 

4.  Cricket-bat  willow  or  blue  willow  {Salix  coerulea). 
This  is  a  hybrid  between  Salix  fragilis  and  Salix  alba, 
occurring  only  in  the  female  sex,  and  invariably  propagated 
by  sets  or  cuttings.  It  is  grown  in  the  eastern  counties  of 
England,  mainly  in  Essex,  Hertford,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  and 
Cambridgeshire.  Eemarkably  fast  in  growth,  it  produces  a 
wide-ringed  timber,  light  in  weight  and  of  great  elasticity, 
which  is  used  for  making  cricket  bats,  and  sells  at  a  higli 
price.  Trees  often  attain,  in  thirteen  to  fifteen  years  after 
planting,  40  to  50  feet  in  height  and  13  to  15  inches  in 
diameter.  Cricket-bat  willow  should  be  planted  only  in 
good  sites,  such  as  rich  alluvial  lands  by  the  side  of  a 
running  stream,  or  fertile  loam  where  there  is  a  good  supply 
of  moisture.  Ground  of  any  kind  sodden  with  stagnant 
water,  and  clay,  gravel,  and  peat  soils  are  quite  unsuitable. 
Large  sets,  6  to  10  feet  long,  should  be  used  for  planting. 
As  this  willow  requires  much  light  and  space,  and  the 
object  is  to  produce  as  quickly  as  possible  a  short  stem, 
clear  of  branches  for  about  12  to  15  feet,  the  part  utilisable 
by  the  bat-maker,  a  good  crown  of  foliage  must  be  preserved 
from  the  start,  and  the  trees  should  be  planted  wide  apart, 
the  distance  between  them  being  not  less  than  30  feet.  A 
fvill  account  of  the  cultivation  of  this  tree  was  given  by  the 
writer  in  Trees  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  vii.  1763- 
1769  (1913),  of  which  an  abstract  by  A.  P.  Long  was 
published  in  Joitrn.  Board  of  Agriculture,  xxi.  289  (1914). 

Black  Walnut  (Juglans  nigra). — It  has  been  proposed  to 
grow  this  American  species  in  our  woods,  as  the  timber  is 
very  valuable,  and  splendid  single  trees  are  known  to  occur 
in  many  parks  in  the  south  of  England.  The  tree  is,  how- 
ever, exacting  as  regards  soil  and  climate.  It  is  sensitive 
to  frost  when  young,  but  afterwards  becomes  perfectly 
hardy.     It  requires  for  its  good  development  a  considerable 


TREES  FOR  WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS    169 

amount  of  warmth,  and  is  intolerant  of  shade,  the  foliage 
being  so  thin  that  it  seldom  prevents  the  growth  of  grass 
underneath.  It  might  be  tried  in  warm  sheltered  spots  in 
the  south  of  England,  Wales,  and  south-eastern  Ireland, 
either  grown  as  a  standard  over  coppice  on  good  soil,  or 
introduced  in  small  groups  in  deciduous  woods  on  alluvial 
soil  or  rich  loam.  In  raising  seedlings,  only  nuts  of 
American  origin  should  be  used  ;  and  as  young  plants  are 
difficult  to  transplant,  on  account  of  their  long  tap-roots,  it 
is  better  to  sow  the  nuts  in  situ.  See  Quarterly  Journal  of 
Forestry,  ii.  pp.  138  and  167  (1908);  vii.  pp.  28,  32,  and 
225  (1913);  and  ix.  p.  67  (1915). 

Robinia  Pseudacacia. — This  American  species,  popularly 
but  erroneously  called  '  acacia,'  grows  to  a  large  size  in 
parks  in  southern  England.  Its  cultivation  as  a  forest  tree 
in  woods  has  been  urged  on  account  of  the  excellence  of  its 
timber ;  but  successful  plantations  of  Robinia  are  rare  or 
non-existent.  The  tree  requires  much  light  and  space 
during  its  whole  life,  and  when  overshadowed  rapidly  loses 
vigour  and  declines.  It  carries  a  thin  crown  of  foliage, 
which  is  unable  to  suppress  the  grass  beneath.  It  is  easily 
broken  by  wind,  and  suffers  much  in  any  exposed  situation. 
It  is  tender  to  spring  and  autumn  frosts,  and  requires  con- 
siderable warmth  in  summer  for  its  proper  development. 
Against  these  demerits  may  be  set  the  inducement  that  it 
thrives  in  poor  sandy  soils,  provided  these  are  deep.  It, 
however,  only  attains  a  large  size  on  deep  sandy  loam.  It 
may  be  tried  as  a  standard  in  coppice  in  the  southern 
counties  of  England  ;  but  probably  the  best  way  of  cultivat- 
ing Robinia  would  be  to  plant  it  scattered  as  solitary  trees 
in  birch  woods  on  sandy  heaths.  Shelter  would  thus  be 
provided  against  the  wind,  while  there  would  'be  enough 
sunlight  for  it  to  develop.  Amidst  birch  Robinia  cleans  its 
stem  perfectly,  being  often  free  from  branches  up  to  30  feet 
in  fairly  deep  soil.  It  might  also  be  introduced  into  chest- 
nut plantations  on  sandy  soil.  It  is  easily  raised  from  seed, 
and  young  plants  should  be  transplanted  when  a  year  old, 


170  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

and  be  planted  out  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  third  season. 
The  timber  is  valuable  when  of  small  dimensions,  as  heart- 
wood  is  formed  very  early ;  and  on  this  account  the  rotation 
may  be  short,  and  the  trees  be  felled  when  30  or  40  years 
old.  The  wood  is  very  strong,  and  is  valued  for  spokes  of 
motor  wheels.  It  is  easily  riven,  and  when  used  for  posts, 
stakes,  and  sills,  is  much  more  durable  than  oak  in  contact 
with  the  soil.  It  is  now  employed  in  the  United  States  for 
trenails  used  in  fastening  planks  to  sides  of  ships.  Robinia 
suckers  freely  from  the  root,  and  its  natural  regeneration  by 
this  means  is  easy  on  sandy  soil,  when  rabbits  are  excluded. 
See  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  ii.  p.  301  (1908). 


NOTE 

On  page  14.5  Thuya  gigantea  is  said  to  be  free  from  fungus  attacks. 
While  these  sheets  were  passing  through  the  press,  Dr.  G.  H.  Pethybridge, 
in  Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  xii.  pp.  93-97  (April  1919),  has  described 
a  severe  attack  of  the  fungus,  Keithia  thujina,  which  recently  killed  outright 
numerous  three-year-old  seedlings  of  Thuya  gigantea  in  a  forest  nursery  in 
Queen's  County,  Ireland. 

Sir  E.  G.  Loder  has  just  written  to  me  (June  1919)  that  a  fine  plantation 
of  17,000  trees  of  this  species  at  Leonardslee,  Sussex,  have  been  severely 
affected  by  this  fungus,  trees  even  fifteen  feet  high  being  apparently  doomed. 


CHAPTEE  X 

WATER    CATCHMENT    AREAS    IN    ENGLAND    AND    WALES 

The  information  given  in  the  following  pages  is  the  result 
of  queries  addressed  during  1917  and  the  present  year  to 
the  town  clerks  and  water  engineers  of  the  cities  and  towns 
which  derive  their  water  supply  from  catchment  areas. 
Various  publications  have  been  consulted,  especially  the 
Parliamentary  Return  as  to  Water  Undertakings  in  England 
and  Wales,  1915,  which  states  on  p.  xxxi :  "Many  under- 
takers rely  upon  water  collected  in  reservoirs  from  the 
surface  of  uncultivated  land,  and  such  sources  have  been 
described  in  the  returns  as  '  upland  surfaces,'  '  gathering 
grounds,'  or  '  drainage  areas.'  In  some  cases  it  is  not 
possible  to  differentiate  between  supplies  derived  from  up- 
land surfaces  and  from  rivers,  streams,  lakes,  and  springs ; 
but  it  would  appear  that  136  local  authorities,  11  joint 
authorities,  and  20  companies  depend  upon  gathering  grounds 
for  the  whole  or  part  of  their  supplies."  A  summary  of  the 
figures  given  in  the  following  pages  shows  that  127  local 
authorities  and  14  companies  in  England  and  Wales  obtain 
their  water  supply  from  591,336  acres  of  gathering  grounds, 
of  which  140,305  acres  are  owned  by  63  local  authorities 
and  1  water  company.  Owing  to  the  stress  of  war  time 
it  has  not  been  possible  to  make  the  information  now  given 
as  complete  as  it  should  be,  but  the  water  catchment  areas 
that  are  omitted  in  the  present  account  are  of  little  import- 
ance. It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  gathering  grounds 
are  not  confined,  as  is  implied  in  the  statement  of  the 
171 


172  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Parliamentary  Eeturn,  to  uncultivated  ground ;  on  the  con- 
trary, a  good  many  consist  of  arable  land,  with  dwelling- 
houses  and  farm  steadings. 

I.    CUMBEELAND    AND    WESTMORLAND 

Ten  local  authorities  obtain  their  water  supply  from 
gathering  grounds  aggregating  49,959  acres  in  these  two 
counties.  Four  corporations  own  11,484  acres,  of  which 
no  less  than  11,000  acres  belong  to  Manchester.  No  plant- 
ing has  been  done  by  any  of  the  local  authorities  except 
Manchester.  Mr.  J.  Smith  Hill  writes  that  "  the  water 
catchment  areas  in  the  Lake  District  could  be  afforested  to 
a  certain  extent.  There  are  existing  plantations  here  and 
there  on  the  hill  slopes  to  the  various  lakes ;  but  the  land 
is  generally  owned  by  many  proprietors,  and  would  be  trouble- 
some to  acquire  on  account  of  the  sheep  industry.  There 
are  often  rights  of  pasturage,  called  '  stints,'  on  the  fells 
attached  to  each  farm  lower  down,  so  that  afforestation  on 
an  extensive  scale  would  be  a  difficult  matter,  as  the  rights 
would  have  to  be  bought  out,  and  there  would  be  many 
people  to  deal  with.  The  purchase  of  Thirlraere,  where 
there  was  only  one  owner,  was  very  costly  to  Manchester." 

Thirlmere  catchment  area  of  11,000  acres,  owned  by 
Manchester  Corporation,  with  a  good  afforestation  scheme, 
is  fully  described  on  pp.  95-98. 

Carlisle  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Geltsdale,  an  area 
of  7000  acres,  of  which  4000  acres  are  above  1500  feet 
elevation,  1500  acres  between  1250  and  1500  feet,  1000 
acres  between  1000  and  1250  feet,  and  500  acres  under 
1000  feet.  The  area,  which  is  all  grazing  land,  is  not 
owned  by  the  Corporation,  and  no  scheme  for  planting  trees 
has  been  contemplated. 

Aspatria,  Silloth,  and  District  Joint  Water  Board  obtain 
their  supply  from  an  area  of  2251  acres  at  620  to  2000 
feet  altitude,  in  the  parishes  of  Ireby  High,  Ireby  Low,  and 
Uldale,  at  the  head  waters  of  the  river  Ellen,  on  the  north 


174  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

side  of  Skiddaw,  with  an  intake  at  Chapelhouse.  .  The  area, 
which  consists  of  bare  sheep-runs,  does  not  belong  to  the 
Board,  who  have  only  rights  of  diverting  and  impounding 
water. 

Workington,  which  gives  a  supply  in  bulk  to  Cocker- 
mouth,  obtains  its  water  from  Crummock  Lake,  with  a  catch- 
ment area  of  16,000  acres,  situated  between  323  and  2791 
feet  elevation,  of  which  the  Town  Council  own  only  307 
acres.  The  watershed  is  mostly  mountain  or  moorland  of  a 
rocky  nature,  with  very  few  buildings  and  little  arable  land. 
On  the  lower  part  of  the  watershed,  from  which  compensa- 
tion water  is  taken,  there  are  more  farmsteads  and  arable 
land.  Close  to  the  lake  there  are  no  buildings,  and  practic- 
ally no  contamination  occurs,  as  is  proved  by  chemical  and 
bacteriological  examination.  The  water  is  not  filtered,  but 
is  simply  passed  through  copper  screens  at  the  intake. 

Whitehaven  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Ennerdale 
Lake,  with  a  catchment  area  of  10,000  acres,  situated  be- 
tween 369  and  2900  feet  elevation,  and  comprising  480 
acres  of  arable  land  (including  380  acres  of  meadow  and 
pasture),  9420  acres  of  hill  grazing  and  moorland,  and 
100  acres  of  plantations.  The  Corporation  own  ^  acre 
only.  There  are  ten  habitations  on  the  area,  nine  of  which 
are  at  such  a  distance  from  the  lake  that  they  are  not  likely 
to  cause  any  contamination.  In  the  case  of  the  only  one 
built  on  the  margin  of  the  lake,  the  sewage  is  treated.  The 
supply,  which  is  not  filtered,  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  softest 
and  purest  in  Britain,  being  equalled  only  by  that  of  Loch 
Katrine. 

Cleator  Moor  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  Meadley  reservoir,  Kinneside,  with  a  catchment 
area  of  600  acres  on  Cleator,  Kinneside,  and  Ennerdale  Fells, 
between  500  and  1200  feet  elevation,  all  hill  pasture  and 
moorland,  without  any  arable  land  or  plantations.  The 
gathering  ground,  of  which  26  acres  are  owned  by  the 
Council,  has  no  habitations  or  farm  steadings  upon  it.     The 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  175 

water  is  filtered,  and  "  the  ground  is  examined  to  see 
that  there  are  no  dead  sheep  lying  on  it.  Nothing  else  is 
required." 

Penrith  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  Ha wes water  Lake,  with  a  catchment  area  of  7  5  0  acres, 
between  1383  and  2300  feet  elevation,  all  hill  pasture  and 
moorland,  grazed  by  mountain  sheep  only,  and  without 
habitations  or  farmsteads.  Filtration  is  not  necessary.  The 
Council  owns  none  of  the  catchment  area. 

Kendal  has  a  water  catchment  area  of  300  acres,  at 
Benson  Knott,  the  storage  reservoir  being  Fisher  Tarn,  2|- 
miles  east  of  the  town.  The  area,  of  which  60  acres  are 
owned  by  the  Town  Council,  lies  between  700  and  1000 
feet  altitude,  and  is  "  upland  moorland,  with  some  grazing 
and  arable  land,  free  from  habitable  houses  and  farms."  The 
water  is  not  filtered.  See  Trans.  Liverpool  Engineering  Soc. 
xxiv.  (1903). 

Millom  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  (1)  Whicham  Beck,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  686 
acres  on  Swinside  Fells,  between  275  and  800  feet  eleva- 
tion, and  (2)  Stoupdale  Beck,  with  a  gathering  ground  of 
372  acres  on  Whitcombe  Fells,  between  400  and  1280  feet 
elevation.  Of  the  total  area  of  1 0  5  8  acres,  the  Council  owns 
117  acres  adjoining  the  storage  reservoir  at  Baystone  Bank, 
Whicham,  which  comprise  one  sheep  farm  of  1  2  acres,  100 
acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  and  5  acres  of  plantations. 
The  sewage  of  the  farmhouse  is  diverted  into  a  cesspool, 
frequently  emptied.  The  rest  of  the  gathering  ground,  941 
acres,  is  rough  rocky  mountain  pasture. 

South  Westmorland  Rural  District  Council  obtain  their 
water  supply  in  part  from  an  upland  surface  of  500  acres 
at  Lupton,  where  there  is  a  reservoir.  The  water  is  not 
filtered.  Information  about  ownership,  etc.,  has  not  been 
obtainable. 


176  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

II.  Northumberland  and  Durham 

Two  local  authorities  and  two  private  companies  obtain 
their  water  supply  from  gathering  grounds  in  these  two 
counties.  The  gathering  grounds  have  a  total  extent  of 
41,197  acres,  of  which  110  acres  are  owned  by  Morpeth, 
and  3300  acres  by  the  Newcastle  and  Gateshead  Water 
Company. 

Morpeth  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  (1)  a 
gathering  ground  of  110  acres  on  Morpeth  Common,  be- 
tween 209  and  260  feet  elevation,  which  is  owned  by  the 
Corporation;  and  (2)  a  gathering  ground  of  194  acres  at 
Tranwell,  between  300  and  350  feet  elevation,  not  owned 
by  the  Corporation.  The  total  area  of  304  acres  comprises 
219  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  85  acres  of  plantations,  and 
is  free  from  habitations  or  farm  steadings.  No  precautions, 
other  than  filtration,  are  carried  out,  except  that  a  pipe  is 
laid  under  the  bed  of  the  small  stream  leading  the  water 
into  the  storage  reservoir  at  Tranwell.  All  the  water 
collected  on  Morpeth  Common  is  carried  by  under  drainage 
direct  to  a  filter  bed. 

Tynemouth  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Font  im- 
pounding reservoir,  with  a  gathering  ground  in  the  Font 
valley,  Northumberland,  of  7360  acres,  situated  between 
611  and  1447  feet  elevation,  the  highest  point  being  Tosson 
Hill.  The  Town  Council  own  only  the  site  of  the  reservoir 
and  the  margin  around  it.  There  are  four  farm  steadings 
and  houses  upon  the  area,  which  formerly  had  some  wood- 
land upon  it,  but  there  are  now  only  a  few  living  trees 
standing.  The  proportion  of  arable  land  is  not  stated.  No 
special  precautions  are  taken  against  contamination  on 
the  gathering  ground,  but  the  water  is  passed  through 
filters. 

The  Newcastle  and  Gateshead  Water  Company,  which 
supplies  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Gateshead,  and  adjacent 
districts  in  Northumberland  and  Durham,  obtain  their  water 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AKEAS      177 

supply  from  the  following  catchment  areas  in  Northumber- 
land : 

1.  Eede  Valley  gathering  ground,  9848  acres,  comprising 
the  head  waters  of  the  river  Eede,  east  of  Carter  Fell 
(1813  feet  elevation),  and  feeding  Catcleugh  reservoir. 
About  one-third  of  the  area,  say  3300  acres,  are  owned  by 
the  Company. 

2.  Swinburn  gathering  ground,  4462  acres,  with  Little 
Swinburn  and  Colt  Crag  reservoirs,  near  Barrasford  on  the 
North  Tyne.  The  Company  own  only  the  reservoir  sites 
and  fringes  of  land  adjacent. 

3.  Hallington  gathering  ground,  5453  acres,  with  West 
Hallington  and  East  Hallington  reservoirs  near  Colwell. 
Erring  Burn  drains  into  a  catchwater  which  is  treated  as 
part  of  this  gathering  ground.  The  Company  own  only  the 
reservoir  sites  and  fringes. 

4.  Whittle  Dene  gathering  ground,  4770  acres,  with 
seven  reservoirs.  The  Company  own  only  the  reservoir  sites 
and  fringes. 

5.  The  Company  also  obtain  some  water  from  the  river 
Pont  at  Matfen,  with  a  catchment  area  of  7950  acres,  not 
owned  and  only  partially  used  by  the  Company. 

The  catchment  areas,  exclusive  of  the  river  Pont  area, 
which  is  only  partially  used,  aggregate  24,533  acres,  and  are 
largely  hill  pasture.  The  amount  of  arable  land  and  number 
of  habitations  and  farmsteads  on  the  various  gathering 
grounds  have  not  been  ascertained.  The  water  is  passed 
through  sand  filters,  and  is  reported  to  be  of  excellent 
quality,  without  any  action  on  lead. 

Weardale  and  Consett  Water  Company  obtain  their  supply 
from  two  catchment  areas  in  Durham : 

1.  Eiver  Wear  gathering  ground,  6000  acres,  between 
700  and  1650  feet  elevation,  supplying  Waskerley 
reservoir  (1172  feet  O.D.)  and  Tunstall  reservoir  (720 
feet  O.D.),  and  comprising  5315  acres  of  hill  pasture  and 
moor,  5  acres  of  gardens,  and  680  acres  of  plantations. 

2,  Eiver    Derwent    area,    3000    acres,    between    1000 

N 


178  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

and  1600  feet  elevation,  supplying  Hisehope  reservoir 
(1128  feet  O.D.)  and  Smiddy  Shaw  reservoir  (1120 
feet  O.D.),  all  hill  pasture  except  one  acre  of  gardens. 

The  Company  own  or  hold  on  perpetual  lease  from  the 
Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs  only, 
namely,  206  acres  (102  owned,  104  leased)  on  the  Weardale 
area,  and  135  acres  (leased)  on  the  Derwent  area.  On  the 
Weardale  area  there  are  6  farmsteads  and  1 3  houses,  and  on 
the  Derwent  area  2  houses  only.  The  drainage  from  the  farm- 
s'teads  is,  by  agreement  with  the  landowners,  diverted  on  to 
meadowland.  The  water  is  filtered.  For  further  particulars 
see  R.  Ask  with,  M.Inst.C.E.,  in  Trans.  Inst.  Water  Engineers, 
xiv.  60  (1910). 


III.  Lancashire 

Twenty-one  local  authorities  obtain  their  water  supply 
from  gathering  grounds  with  a  total  extent  of  66,412 
acres,  of  which  27,085  acres  are  owned  by  12  corporations. 
The  chief  authorities  owning  water  catchment  areas  in 
Lancashire  are  Liverpool,  Bolton,  Bury,  and  the  Heywood 
and  Middleton  Water  Board.  Liverpool  has  planted  1300 
acres  on  the  Rivington  area.  Bury  has  not  been  very  success- 
ful with  an  afforestation  scheme  which  was  begun  in  1908. 
Planting  on  the  Bolton  areas  has  been  a  failure.  There 
are  woods  of  small  extent  on  the  Fylde,  Fulwood,  and 
Preston  gathering  gro\inds.  The  moorlands  of  Lancashire, 
owing  to  their  exposure  to  the  west  wind  and  the  preva- 
lence of  smoke  from  the  neighbouring  manufacturing  towns 
in  some  districts,  are  not  favourably  situated  for  tree-growth. 
The  degree  to  which  the  air  of  the  densely  populated  part 
of  Lancashire  is  fouled  by  smoke,  and  the  consequent 
deleterious  effiect  on  vegetation,  are  not  fully  recognised. 
The  whole  of  southern  Lancashire  (the  half  of  the  county 
lying  south  of  the  river  Ribble),  and  especially  the  dis- 
trict between  Blackburn,  Accrington,  and  Burnley  on  the 
north,  and  Wigan,  Bolton,  and  Manchester  on  the  south,  are 
far   too   much    affected   by    smoke    to    allow    of   anything 


Fig.  35. — Lancashire  Catchment  Areas. 


180  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

approaching  normal  tree-growth.  As  is  well  known,  the 
smoke  of  southern  Lancashire  and  of  the  West  Eiding  of 
Yorkshire  affect  to  some  extent  the  whole  of  the  north  of 
England.  The  bad  effect  of  smoke  on  trees  must  be  taken 
into  account  in  all  afforestation  schemes  of  areas  in  or  near 
these  manufacturing  districts.  See  our  notes  on  effect  of 
smoke,  pp.  45  and  57,  and  J.  A.  Wheldon  and  W.  G.  Travis 
in  Journ.  Linnean  Soc.  (Botany),  vol.  xliii.  pp.  89-95  (1915). 

Rivington  catchment  area  of  10,000  acres,  owned  by 
Liverpool  Corporation,  with  1300  acres  of  plantations,  is 
fully  described  on  p.  94. 

Barrow  in  Furness  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two 
catchment  areas,  as  follows  : 

1.  Poaka  Beck  and  Pennington  reservoirs,  at  505  feet 
elevation,  have  a  gathering  ground  extending  up  to  1000 
feet  elevation  ;  and  Harlock  reservoir  at  6 1 0  feet  elevation 
has  a  gathering  ground  ascending  to  1025  feet  elevation. 
The  total  area  is  1980  acres,  of  which  only  about  135  acres 
are  owned  by  the  Corporation,  and  of  this  92  acres  are 
water.  There  are  a  few  plantations  on  the  gathering 
grounds  (not  on  the  Corporation  land),  most  of  which  is 
moorland  covered  with  heather  and  bracken.  The  planta- 
tions appear  to  have  been  much  neglected,  though  there  are 
some  fair-sized  trees  among  them.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  is  53  inches. 

2.  The  watershed  of  the  river  Duddon,  above  the  intake, 
7^  miles  from  its  source,  is  12,000  acres,  of  which  the 
Corporation  own  only  about  100  acres,  and  of  this  85  acres 
are  water.  There  are  on  the  lower  levels  of  the  gathering 
ground  several  woods  and  plantations  with  fair-sized  trees 
in  them  which  appear  to  thrive  well.  The  upper  levels 
consist  of  fell  and  moorland,  used  for  sheep  grazing.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  90  inches.  About  4 J  miles 
above  the  intake,  Seathwaite  Tarn,  the  level  of  which  was 
raised  20  feet  by  a  concrete  wall,  has  now  an  overflow  level 
of  1230  feet,  and  forms  a  large  compensation  reservoir. 
The   highest   point   of  the   watershed    draining   into    it  is 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AREAS  181 

2550  feet  altitude.      See  Proc.  Inst.  Municipal  and  CoiiMty 
Engineers,  vol.  36,  p.  447  (1910). 

Grange  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  a  gathering  ground  of  120  acres  at  Newton  in  Cartmel, 
Lancashire,  between  600  and  800  feet  elevation.  The 
Council  owns  100  acres.  The  gathering  ground  is  all  moor- 
land, and  free  from  habitations  except  the  cottage  of  the 
attendant,  the  sewage  of  which  is  diverted  by  a  pipe  off  the 
area.  There  are  two  storage  reservoirs  at  Newton  in 
Cartmel,  and  the  water  is  filtered. 

Lancaster  obtains  its  water  supply  from  moorland  springs 
in  Lee  Fell,  Dunkenshaw  Fell,  and  Tarnbrook  Fell,  in  the 
north-eastern  part  of  the  watershed  of  the  river  Wyre.  The 
catchment  area  is  said  by  Mansergh,  in  Journ.  R.  Soc.  Arts, 
vol  32,  p.  872  (1884),  to  be  2700  acres  in  extent,  at  850 
to  1800  feet  altitude,  being  scanty  herbage  on  millstone  grit 
with  numerous  springs,  so  that  the  water  supply  is  perfect. 
As  this  supply  is  not  derived  from  surface  water,  this  catch- 
ment area  is  not  included  in  the  total  66,412  acres  of 
gathering  grounds  of  Lancashire,  on  p.  178. 

The  Fylde  Water  Board,  which  supplies  Blackpool,  Fleet- 
wood, and  other  places  in  Lancashire,  has  two  catchment 
areas  in  Bleasdale  in  the  river  Wyre  watershed  : 

Eiver  Calder  area,  intake  at  Luddock's  Fell,  2000  acres, 
at  628  to  1520  feet  elevation,  without  any  plantations;  no 
part  is  owned  by  the  Board. 

Grizedale  Brook  area,  intake  at  Grizedale  Fell,  1083 
acres,  at  395  to  1325  feet  elevation.  The  Board  owns  150 
acres,  including  the  sites  of  two  reservoirs  and  some  land 
around  them.  There  are  about  50  acres  of  plantations  in 
the  valley  near  the  reservoirs. 

The  whole  gathering  ground  is  rough  moorland,  unculti- 
vated, and  free  from  pollution,  there  being  only  one  small 
farm  upon  it.  The  water,  which  is  stored  in  the  Grizedale, 
North  Barnacre,  and  South  Barnacre  reservoirs,  is  passed 
through  straining  chambers  and  sand  filters. 


182  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Fulwood  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  an  upland  surface  of  330  acres  on  Beacon  Fell,  Goos- 
nargh,  between  500  and  872  feet  elevation.  It  is  all  hill 
pasture  and  moor,  with  one  farmstead  upon  it.  The  Council 
owns  300  acres.     The  water  is  not  filtered. 

Carnforth  District  Waterworlss  Company  obtain  their 
supply  from  the  Swarthbeck  Stream  at  Over  Kellet,  where 
there  is  a  storage  reservoir,  with  a  catchment  area  of  about 
400  acres,  between  360  and  422  feet  elevation.  The  Com- 
pany own  only  3  acres  of  the  area,  which  comprises  60 
acres  of  arable  land,  280  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  and 
60  acres  of  plantations.  There  are  3  habitations  on  the 
gathering  ground,  and  no  special  measures  are  taken  against 
contamination.      The  water  is  filtered. 

Preston  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  catchment 
areas,  both  in  Lancashire,  aggregating  5465  acres  in 
extent  : 

1.  River  Hodder  Watershed,  4765  acres,  comprising 
Langden  Valley,  3795  acres,  between  525  and  1707  feet 
elevation,  and  Hareden  Valley,  970  acres,  between  47 1  and 
1500  feet  elevation. 

2,  River  Ribble  Watershed,  Longridge  Fell,  700  acres, 
comprising  Cowley  Brook  area,  300  acres,  between  620  and 
1016  feet  elevation,  and  Dean  Brook  area,  400  acres, 
between  600  and  1125  feet  elevation. 

The  areas  are  not  owned  by  the  Corporation,  who  have 
only  acquired  the  water  rights.  There  are  no  plantations 
of  trees  in  the  Langden  or  Hareden  Valleys ;  but  in  Cowley 
area  there  are  130  acres,  and  in  Dean  area  250  acres  of 
plantations.  The  water  is  filtered.  The  watersheds  are  all 
moorland,  without  habitations,  except  one  house  in  the  Dean 
Brook  area,  the  drainage  of  which  is  specially  dealt  with. 

Colne  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  the  river 
Laneshaw,  about  three  miles  east  of  the  town,  with  an 
upland  gathering  ground  on  Emmott  Moor,  780  acres  in 
extent,  at   660   to   143 U   feet  elevation.      The  Corporation 


WATER  CATCHMENT  ABE  AS  183 

practically  own  none  of  the  area,  which  is  without  any 
plantations,  most  of  it  being  "  rather  bare  and  above  the 
tree-line."  The  water  is  filtered,  and  in  times  of  floods, 
etc.,  the  keeper  of  the  Laneshaw  reservoir  turns  the  intake 
down  the  bye-pass  cliannel,  so  as  to  keep  the  water  out  of 
the  reservoir. 

Nelson  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  gathering 
grounds  : 

1.  Catlow  Brook  area,  east  of  the  town,  400  acres, 
between  943  and  1300  feet  elevation,  draining  into  Cold- 
well  reservoir,  and 

2.  Pendle  Hill  area,  west  of  Nelson,  1100  acres,  between 
837  and  1850  feet,  with  two  reservoirs  at  Ogden. 

The  total  area,  1500  acres,  is  entirely  hill  pasture  and 
moor,  without  plantations  or  arable  land.  The  Corporation 
own  137  acres,  situated  above  Coldwell  reservoir,  which 
was  purchased  in  1916  in  order  to  prevent  manuring  of 
the  land.      The  water  is  filtered. 

Padiham  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  two  upland  surfaces,  aggregating  440  acres  on  Pendle 
Hill,  and  situated  between  800  and  1500  feet  elevation. 
The  area,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Council,  is  hill 
pasture  grazed  by  sheep,  and  is  without  plantations  or 
farmsteads.  The  only  precautions  taken  are  constant 
inspection  of  the  streams.  The  water,  which  is  not  filtered, 
is  stored  in  the  Pendle  Hill  reservoir. 

Burnley  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  gathering 
grounds:  Cant  Clough  reservoir,  Worsthorne  Moor,  1050 
acres,  between  800  and  1400  feet  elevation;  and  two 
reservoirs  at  Swinden,  Extwistle  Moor,  985  acres,  between 
924  and  1400  feet  elevation.  The  total  area,  2033  acres 
in  extent,  is  entirely  hill  pasture  and  moorland,  free  from 
farmsteads  and  habitations ;  and  no  part  of  it  is  owned  by 
the  Council  except  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs.  The  water  is 
filtered,  and  no  other  precautions  are  considered  necessary 
against  contamination. 


184  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Accrington  District  Gas  and  Water  Board  obtain  part  of 
their  water  supply  from  three  gathering  grounds : 

1.  Mitchell's  two  reservoirs,  Accrington,  460  acres, 
between  977  and  1200  feet  elevation. 

2.  Burnley  Eoad  reservoir,  Huncoat,  250  acres,  between 
634  and  850  feet  elevation. 

3.  Dean  Clough  reservoir,  Great  Harwood,  540  acres, 
between  504  and  745  feet  elevation. 

The  total  area,  1250  acres,  is  made  up  of  1198  acres  of 
hill  pasture  and  moor,  45  acres  of  arable  land,  and  7  acres 
of  plantations ;  and  on  it  there  are  1 2  dwelling-houses  and 
farmsteads.  The  Board  own  426  acres  (including  60  acres 
of  water)  on  Dean  Clough  area,  17  acres  on  Burnley  Eoad 
area,  and  8  2  acres  (including  2  8  acres  of  water)  on  Mitchell's 
area.  The  water,  except  that  of  the  Burnley  Eoad 
reservoir,  is  filtered.  The  precautions  taken  against  con- 
tamination are  constant  inspection  of  the  land  by  water 
bailiff,  storm-water  reservoirs  at  the  inlets,  and  catchwater 
drains  around  the  reservoirs. 

Bury  and  District  Joint  Water  Board  obtain  their  supply 
from  five  gathering  grounds,  as  follows : 

1.  Haslingden  Grane  area,  with  Ogden,  Calf  Hey,  and 
Holden  Wood  reservoirs,  2185  acres,  between  650  and 
1250  feet  elevation. 

2.  Eawtenstall  area,  with  Clow  Bridge  and  Clough 
Bottom  reservoirs,  2036  acres,  between  900  and  1400  feet 
elevation. 

3.  Scout  Moor  area,  Edenfield  reservoir,  244  acres, 
between  650  and  1500  feet  elevation. 

4.  Walmersley  area.  Gin  Hall  reservoir,  163  acres, 
between  450  and  750  feet  elevation. 

5.  Shuttleworth  area.  Harden  Clough  and  Cross  Bank 
reservoirs,  200  acres,  between  650  and  950  feet  eleva- 
tion. 

The  whole  of  the  gathering  grounds,  4828  acres,  are 
owned  as  freehold  by  the  Water  Board.  The  three 
principal  areas  are  mostly  moorland  and  hill  pasture,  the 


WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  185 

amount  of  arable  land  on  the  Haslingden  Grane  area  being 
78  acres,  and  on  the  Clow  Bridge  area  60  acres  only. 
About  one-half  of  the  total  extent  of  the  gathering  grounds 
are  above  the  1000  feet  contour  line,  the  other  half  being 
below  it.  The  late  Professor  W.  E.  Fisher  made  a  report 
in  1908  and  drew  up  proposals  for  planting  700  acres  in 
all  on  the  Haslingden,  Clow  Bridge,  and  Scout  Moor  areas. 
The  moors  occupying  the  high  altitudes,  owing  to  the 
constant  practice  of  burning  the  heather,  are  now  covered 
with  coarse  tufted  grass,  of  scarcely  any  value  for  cattle  or 
sheep,  and,  owing  to  the  depth  of  the  peat  and  the  high 
elevation,  cannot  be  planted  with  trees.  Just  below  the 
moors  there  are  rough  sloping  lands,  between  800  and  1000 
feet  altitude,  which  in  Professor  Fisher's  opinion  could  be 
planted  with  trees.  Lower  down  the  slopes  there  are 
numerous  little  dairy  farms  with  excellent  buildings.  The 
plantation  of  the  slopes  above  these  farms  would  be  of 
great  value  as  shelter  for  the  stock  upon  them.  He  re- 
commended spruce,  larch,  beech,  sycamore,  and  ash  as  suit- 
able species.  The  cost  of  fencing  against  stock  and  the 
small  size  of  some  of  the  planting  areas  recommended  were 
uneconomic  features  in  his  afforestation  scheme.  Where,  as 
in  some  parts,  the  smoke  nuisance  existed,  only  broad-leaved 
trees  were  recommended  to  be  used.  The  use  of  basic 
slag,  kainit,  and  carbonate  of  lime  was  advocated  for  peaty 
soil  on  which  spruce  was  to  be  planted.  In  accordance 
with  Professor  Fisher's  advice,  158  acres  of  plantations 
were  made  between  1909  and  1915.  The  results  have 
been  very  varied,  particularly  in  the  case  of  over  an 
altitude  of  1000  feet,  where  the  number  of  trees  killed  has 
been  very  considerable,  doubtless  owing  to  their  exposed 
position. 

Only  some  of  the  water  is  filtered,  namely,  that  from  the 
Clow  Bridge  and  Clough  Bottom  reservoirs.  See  W.  E. 
Fisher,  Report  on  Planting  of  Trees  in  the  Watersheds  of 
Bury  and  District  Joint  Board,  14  pp.  and  maps  (Bury, 
1908);  and  A.  P.  Greenfell  in  Quarterly  Journal  of 
Forestry,  iii.  41  (1909). 


186  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Bacup  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  gathering 
grounds:  (1)  Cowpe  reservoir,  on  Cowpe  Brook,  with  a 
catchment  area  of  593  acres,  between  1020  and  1400  feet 
elevation,  of  which  500  acres  are  owned  by  the  Town 
Council.  These  500  acres  are  made  up  of  458  acres  of 
moorland,  13  acres  of  ploughed  land,  26  acres  of  meadow, 
and  4  acres  of  plantations.  A  wall  has  been  built  to  keep 
cattle  off  the  gathering  ground,  on  which  there  are  occupied 
farmsteads  and  dwelling-houses.  (2)  Sheephouses  reservoir, 
with  a  gathering  ground  of  150  acres,  of  which  the  Town 
Council  own  only  the  water  rights.  The  water  of  both 
reservoirs  is  filtered. 

Rochdale  obtains  its  water  supply  from  four  gathering 
grounds  as  follows : 

1.  Whit  worth  area  (Cowm  reservoir),  964  acres,  at  816 
to  1450  feet  elevation. 

2.  Norden  and  Whitworth  area  (Spring  Mill  reservoir), 
558  acres,  between  771  and  1450  feet  elevation. 

3.  Wardle  and  Whitworth  area  (Syke  reservoirs),  497 
acres,  between  787  and  1300  feet  elevation. 

4.  Walsden  area  (Walsden  reservoir),  400  acres,  between 
987  and  1425  feet  elevation. 

The  total  area,  2419  acres,  is  all  hill  pasture  and  moor, 
except  7  acres  of  plantations.  The  Corporation  own  the 
site  of  the  Cowm  reservoir,  78  acres  of  the  Norden  area, 
and  320  acres  of  the  Walsden  area.  There  are  20  sheep 
farms  and  cottages  on  the  Whitworth,  Norden,  and  Wardle 
areas.  The  water  is  filtered  and  regularly  analysed.  The 
gathering  grounds  are  frequently  inspected,  and  water  of  a 
doubtful  character  is  diverted.  The  sewage  of  the  farms 
and  cottages  is  dealt  with  by  pail  closets  and  watertight 
cesspools. 

A  new  gathering  ground  at  Walsden  in  connection  with 
the  intended  Ramsden  lower  reservoir  is  estimated  at  350 
acres,  between  783  and  1250  feet  elevation.  Of  this,  113 
acres,  all  hill  pasture  and  moor,  except  4  acres  of  planta- 
tions, are  owned  by  the  Corporation.     There  are  3  habitations 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  187 

upon  the  area.  Mr.  Frank  H.  Brunt,  A.M.Inst.C.K, 
states  that  the  presence  of  soot  is  easily  discernible 
on  the  moorland  grass  situated  within  several  miles  of 
Kochdale. 


Bolton  has  12,202  acres  of  gathering  grounds  at 
Entwistle,  Belmont,  and  Heaton.  The  compensation  reser- 
voirs, Belmont,  Eumworth,  and  Wayoh,  draw  from  about  half 
this  area;  and  the  Springs,  Dingle,  Entwistle,  High  Eid, 
and  Heaton  storage  reservoirs  obtain  their  domestic  water 
from  the  other  half.  Of  the  total  area  the  Corporation  have 
acquired  7084  acres,  of  which  6046  acres  are  in  the 
Belmont  area  in  Turton  Urban  District,  and  915  acres  are 
in  the  Entwistle  area,  Darwen  Parish.  The  Corporation 
have  not  acquired  the  gathering  grounds  of  the  Heaton  and 
High  Kid  reservoirs,  situated  for  the  most  part  in  the 
Borough  of  Bolton,  and  are  unable  to  exercise  effective 
control  over  these  areas,  on  which  there  are  7  farms,  2 
public  -  houses,  and  3  9  cottages,  with  a  population  of 
216  persons.  Notwithstanding  the  large  expenditure  by 
the  Corporation  in  enclosing  tlie  streams  thereon,  and  the 
measures  taken  to  obviate  preventable  pollution,  the  water 
obtained  from  this  source  is  at  times  so  grossly  polluted  as 
to  be  obnoxious  and  highly  dangerous.  The  Local  Govern- 
ment Board  wrote  to  the  Town  Clerk  on  1st  December 
1910  as  follows :  "  The  Board  approve  of  the  exclusion  of 
Heaton  water,  that  has  not  been  subjected  to  storage,  from 
the  supply,  and  of  the  decision  of  the  Town  Council  to 
abolish  in  a  few  years  the  farms  on  their  gathering  grounds. 
The  Board  further  understand  that  it  is  the  intention  of  the 
Town  Council  to  acquire  those  parts  of  the  gathering 
grounds  not  already  in  their  possession.  This  is  a  proposal 
with  which  the  Board  entirely  agree." 

Mr.  Lewis  Mitchell,  M.Inst.C.E.,  in  charge  of  the  Water- 
works, is  of  opinion  that  "  the  storage  and  filtration  of 
water  used  for  domestic  purposes  is  not  sufficient  to 
guarantee  its  wholesomeness,  because  the  reservoirs  become 
depleted   during  periods    of    drought ;     and    subsequently, 


188  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

when  the  rains  come,  inadequately  stored  water  is  drawn 
for  purposes  of  filtration,  and  at  the  same  time  the  filters 
may  not  be  working  efficiently  from  one  cause  or  another. 
The  degree  of  safety  conferred  by  storage  and  filtration  is 
after  all  a  debatable  matter.  The  results  of  analyses  show 
that  not  unfrequently  the  raw  waters  from  the  Entwistle, 
Heaton,  and  High  Rid  reservoirs  are  polluted  and  unsafe. 
After  heavy  rains,  when  the  waters  have  received  the 
washings  from  manured  fields  and  slop-water  from  human 
dwellings,  the  organisms  present  therein  have  reached 
several  thousands  per  cubic  centimetre,  notwithstanding  that 
such  waters  were  stored  previous  to  being  drawn  for  use. 
The  policy  of  the  Corporation  in  abandoning  farms  and 
closing  all  human  habitations  on  the  watersheds  supplying 
domestic  water  is  fully  justified." 

Some  years  ago  experimental  plantations  were  made  on 
the  Belmont  watershed  by  the  Corporation  ;  but  after  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money  the  venture  was  not 
successful,  notwithstanding  that  in  the  selection  of  the 
species  and  in  the  mode  of  planting  expert  advice  had  been 
obtained.  In  October  and  December  1912  Mr.  Lewis 
Mitchell  wrote  two  reports  on  a  conjoint  scheme  of  the 
Liverpool  and  Bolton  Corporations  for  the  afforestation  of 
6000  acres  on  the  Rivington,  Belmont,  and  Entwistle 
catchment  areas,  provided  that  the  assistance  of  the 
Development  Commissioners  could  be  obtained.  The  latter 
sent  two  experts  to  examine  the  watersheds  ;  and  after 
inspecting  the  growing  timber  in  the  district,  of  which  there 
is  very  little,  they  were  decidedly  of  opinion  that  the  scheme 
of  afforestation,  if  undertaken,  would  not  be  successful  from 
a  commercial  point  of  view,  and  the  matter  was  sub- 
sequently allowed  to  drop. 

Heywood  and  Middleton  Water  Board  obtain  their  water 
supply  from  (1)  Naden  Brook,  with  a  gathering  ground  of 
1250  acres,  between  724  and  1500  feet  elevation;  and 
(2)  Ashworth  Moor,  gathering  ground  of  1380  acres, 
between  926  and  1468  feet  elevation.     The  whole  of  the 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS      189 

two  areas,  totalling  2630  acres,  is  owned  by  the  Board. 
Nearly  the  whole  of  the  ground  is  hill  pasture  and  moor. 
The  water  is  filtered.  The  figures  here  given  were  supplied 
in  June  1918  by  the  Engineer  to  the  Board. 

Darwen  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  of  660  acres  of  moorland  and  hill  pasture  on 
Darwen  Moors.  The  water  is  filtered.  No  particulars 
were  obtainable  from  the  Town  Clerk.  The  Journal  of 
Board  of  Agriculture,  xi.  469  (1904),  states  that  Darwen 
owns  500  acres  of  gathering  ground,  between  700  and 
1300  feet,  nearly  all  hill  pasture,  with  12  acres  of  wood- 
land. 

Ashton  in  Makerfleld  Urban  District  Council  obtain  their 
water  supply  from  a  gathering  ground  of  400  acres  at 
Winstanley.  The  water  is  filtered.  No  other  particulars 
obtainable, 

Wigan  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  two  upland 
surfaces — 2200  acres  at  Wrightington,  between  218  and 
400  feet  elevation,  and  500  acres  at  Billinge,  between  316 
and  428  feet  elevation.  Tlie  gathering  grounds,  which 
appear  to  be  entirely  agricultural  land,  are  not  owned  by 
the  Corporation.  "  The  farmsteads,  etc.,  are  drained  and 
the  tanks  emptied  when  required,  the  contents  being  carted 
away  and  spread  over  suitable  ground  to  prevent  pollution." 
The  whole  of  these  two  areas  appears  to  be  suitable  for 
afiforestation,  and,  in  any  case,  ought  to  be  under  the 
complete  control  of  the  Corporation. 

Warrington  obtains  its  domestic  supply  entirely  from 
wells,  but  it  obtains  water  for  trade  purposes  from  a 
gathering  ground  of  1360  acres,  between  140  and  250  feet 
elevation,  at  Appleton,  Hatton,  and  Daresbury.  The 
Corporation  do  not  own  any  part  of  this  area,  over  which 
they  have  merely  the  right  to  collect  the  water. 

Horwich  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from    a    jratherinaf   ground   of   97    acres    at    Wildersmoor, 


190  rOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

between  1146  and  1450  feet  elevation,  all  moorland, 
with  two  dwelling-houses  and  farmsteads  upon  it.  None 
of  the  area  is  owned  by  the  Council.  The  water  is  not 
filtered. 


IV.  Yorkshire 

Twenty-four  local  authorities  and  four  private  companies 
obtain  their  water  supply  from  gathering  grounds  with  a 
total  extent  of  178,239  acres,  of  which  33,971  acres  are 
owned  by  ten  corporations.  The  principal  authorities 
owning  water  catchment  areas  in  Yorkshire  are  Leeds, 
Bradford,  Oldham,  and  Batley.  Leeds  is  the  only  Corpora- 
tion which  has  carried  out  planting  on  a  large  scale. 
Bradford  has  always  been  opposed  to  any  afforestation 
schemes  on  its  extensive  areas.  On  the  Halifax  gathering 
grounds  some  plantations,  made  between  1902  and  1909, 
have  not  been  successful  enough  to  encourage  further  effort. 
Keighley  has  postponed  the  consideration  of  an  afforesta- 
tion scheme  till  after  the  war.  There  are  small  planta- 
tions on  the  Huddersfield,  Oldham,  Batley,  and  Sheffield 
gathering  grounds.  In  the  West  Eiding  of  Yorkshire,  as  in 
South  Lancashire,  the  deleterious  effect  of  smoke  on  the 
growth  of  trees  must  be  borne  in  mind  when  afforestation 
schemes  are  under  consideration. 

Leeds  has  four  catchment  areas,  with  a  total  extent  of 
39,474  acres,  of  which  14,700  acres  are  owned  by  the 
Corporation.  For  full  particulars  of  these  areas  and  the 
Washburn  Valley  afforestation  scheme,  see  pp.  99-101. 

Tees  Valley  Water  Board,  which  supplies  Middlesbrough, 
Stockton-on-Tees,  and  many  villages  and  towns  in  Durham, 
obtains  its  supply  (1)  from  the  Hury  and  Blackton  im- 
pounding reservoirs  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Balder, 
Yorkshire,  with  a  catchment  area  of  10,000  acres,  between 
860  and  1600  feet  elevation  ;  and  (2)  from  the  Grassholme 
impounding  reservoir,  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Lune, 
Yorkshire,  with  a  catchment  area  of  18,000  acres,  between 


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Fig. 


-Yorkshire,  Cheshire,  and  Derbyshire  Catchment  Areas. 


192  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

903  and  2591  feet,  the  highest  pomt  being  Mickle  Fell. 
The  Board  own  300  acres  of  the  Balder  area,  and  300  acres 
of  the  Lune  area,  being  simply  the  land  on  which  the 
reservoirs  have  been  constructed.  Fully  95  per  cent  of 
both  areas  is  moorland  and  the  remainder  hill  pasture, 
there  being  no  arable  land  and  few  plantations.  There  are 
about  50  or  60  houses  and  farmsteads  on  the  Balder  area, 
and  70  or  80  houses  and  farmsteads  on  the  Lune  area, 
wholly  tenanted  by  what  are  known  locally  as  fell-side 
sheep  farmers.  There  are  no  special  measures  taken  on  the 
gathering  grounds  to  prevent  contamination,  but  the  water 
if  filtered. 

Ripon  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Lumley  reservoir, 
with  a  gathering  ground  of  700  acres  on  Lumley  Moor, 
between  600  and  800  feet  elevation,  utilising  the  Holburn, 
Craven  Gill,  and  South  Gill  Becks,  tributaries  of  the  river 
Laver.  Of  the  total  area,  45  acres  are  owned  by  the  Cor- 
poration, of  which  about  10  acres  are  plantations.  Ditches 
are  cleaned  out,  the  watershed  is  carefully  looked  after,  and 
the  water  is  filtered.  I  have  no  information  as  regards 
farmsteads  and  cultivation  on  the  gathering  ground,  which 
would  seem  to  be  suitable  for  afforestation. 

Harrogate  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  catchment 
areas : , 

1.  A  gathering  ground  of  2720  acres  on  the  head 
waters  of  Oak  Beck,  a  tributary  of  the  river  Nidd,  with 
four  impounding  reservoirs,  namely,  Scargill  reservoir,  drain- 
ing 1110  acres  ;  Upper  and  Lower  Beaver  Dyke  reservoirs, 
draining  1200  acres;  and  Ten  Acres  reservoir,  tapping  400 
acres.  This  is  moorland  and  rough  pasture  at  500  to  800 
feet  elevation,  and  with  an  average  annual  rainfall  of  28 
inches. 

2.  Eoundhill  reservoir,  on  Pott  Beck,  a  tributary  of  the 
river  Burn,  has  a  gathering  ground  of  3000  acres  of  moor- 
land, which  adjoins  the  Leighton  reservoir  area,  belonging  to 
Leeds  Corporation. 

No  particulars  have  been  obtained  of  these  two  areas,  as 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AEEAS 


193 


regards  either  ownership  or  the  precautions  taken  against 
contamination.      The  water  is  filtered, 

Bradford  has  most  extensive  waterworks  on  the  Yorkshire 
moors,  with  numerous  reservoirs  and  large  catchment  areas. 
In  the  following  table,  the  storage  reservoirs  for  domestic 
use  are  in  ordinary  type,  those  which  give  compensation 
water  being  in  italics. 


Watershed. 

Reservoir. 

Altitude  In 
feet. 

Area  in 
acres. 

Denholme  Beck      . 

Thornton  Moor 

1,241 

1,260 

Stubden 

1,028 

900 

Doe  Park 

850 

1,000 

Hewenden 

687 

1,000 

River  Worth  . 

Leeming 

836 

515 

Leeshaio 

850 

505 

River  Wharfe 

Upper  Barden 

1,170 

1,570 

Lower  Barden 

697 

1,930 

Chelker 

721 

1,290 

Grimwith 

877 

7,000 

River  Aire 

Silsden 

580 

2,000 

River  Nidd    . 

Angram 

1,187^ 

Lodge 

1,089  V 

6,800 

High  Woodale 

994J 

(No  reservoir)* 

11,400 

Gouthwaite 

446 

9,900 

*  The  11,400  acres  just  shown  in  the  river  Nidd  watershed  comprise 
the  catchment  areas  of  five  small  tributary  streams,  Ruscoe  Beck,  How 
Stone  Beck,  Blayshaw  Gill,  Ramsgill  Beck,  and  Colt  House  Beck,  the  water 
of  which  is  conveyed  directly  by  pipes  into  the  main  aqueduct.  In  addition 
to  the  preceding  storage  and  compensation  reservoirs,  there  are  in  the 
vicinity  of  Bradford  the  following  supply  reservoirs  without  catchment 
areas  :  Heaton,  523  feet  elevation  ;  Horton  Bank,  910  feet ;  Brayshaw, 
975  feet ;  Idle  Hill,  750  feet ;  and  Chellow  Heights,  845  feet. 


Nearly  all  the  gathering  grounds  are  high  moorlands 
reported  to  be  above  the  reach  of  pollution  from  populated 
districts.  The  Corporation  owned  in  1906,  besides  small 
areas  (21  acres  at  Thornton,  113|- acres  at  Chellow  Heights, 
48|-  acres  at  Gilstead  Filter  Beds,  43  acres  at  Morton,  96 
acres  at  Silsden,  and  99|-  acres  at  Grimwith),  the  following 
large  blocks  of  land  : 

o 


194  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

1.  In  Oxenhope  and  Denholme  Parishes,  1090  acres, 
acquired  at  a  cost  of  £44,464  for  the  purpose  of  protect- 
ing and  preserving  the  purity  of  the  water  drawn  from 
Denholme  Moor  and  Thornton  Moor.  These  lands  were  let 
in  1906,  under  restrictive  clauses  as  to  manuring  and  tillage, 
to  thirty-six  tenants  at  an  average  annual  rent  of  15s.  per 
acre.  Forest  timber  has  not  been  grown,  and  no  planta- 
tions exist  on  the  owned  lands  or  on  any  other  part  of  these 
areas,  the  elevation  of  which  varies  from  800  feet  at  Leem- 
ing  to  1325  feet  at  Spring  Hall. 

2.  In  Lower  Nidderdale,  618  acres,  at  460  to  1000  feet 
elevation,  acquired  at  a  cost  of  £13,850,  and  let  in  1906  to 
three  tenants  at  an  annual  rent  of  16s.  per  acre. 

3.  In  Upper  Nidderdale,  7051  acres,  including  109 
acres  at  Lofthouse,  acquired  at  a  cost  of  £2050  and  let  as  a 
farm  at  £50  yearly.  The  remaining  6942  acres,  acquired 
for  £71,838,  range  in  elevation  from  900  feet  at  Woodale 
to  2300  feet  on  Whernside.  This  is  wild  and  bleak  in 
winter,  and  without  any  trees,  being  devoted  to  grazing 
black-faced  hill  sheep  in  summer,  and  grouse  shooting  in 
autumn. 

Proposals  of  afforestation  of  all  these  catchment  areas 
were  strongly  opposed  by  the  engineer,  Mr.  James  Watson, 
from  whose  report  on  19th  January  1906  to  the  Bradford 
Waterworks  Committee  the  preceding  particulars  of  owner- 
ship are  taken.  His  main  contention  was  that  on  the 
higher  elevations  forest  trees  would  certainly  fail  to  grow, 
and  that  at  lower  altitudes  they  could  scarcely  be  grown 
with  profit.  He  raised  one  objection  :  the  disturbance  of 
the  peat  by  planting  operations.  The  Thornton  Moor  area, 
where  the  peat  is  abraded  and  exposed,  imparts  to  the  rains 
an  acidity  that  unless  neutralised  by  constant  treatment 
acts  on  lead  pipes.  He  considered  that  the  digging  of 
3000  pits  per  acre,  and  the  cutting  of  the  necessary  drains 
in  the  peaty  subsoil,  would  for  years  render  difficult  the 
treatment  of  the  water,  and  entail  serious  risk  of  lead 
poisoning.  He  did  not  believe  that  tree-planting  was  work 
calculated   to   give   more    than    very  short  and  temporary 


WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS      195 

relief  to  any  great  number  of  unemployed.  It  appears  that 
the  Bradford  Corporation  has  spent  enormous  sums  of 
money  on  the  purchase  of  the  land  necessary  for  its  exten- 
sive waterworks,  and  was  not  inclined  to  spend  any  money 
whatever  on  afforestation  when  this  was  put  forward  as  a 
means  for  solving  the  difficult  problem  of  unemployment  in 
large  towns.  A  pamphlet  entitled  "  Water  Supply,  with  a 
Description  of  the  Bradford  Waterworks,"  by  J.  Watson, 
was  published  at  Bradford  in  1900.  See  also  Proc.  Assoc. 
Municipal  and  County  Engineers,  xxiv.  128-132  (1898), 
and  Trans.  Inst.  Water  Engineers,  xiii.  126  (1908).  A 
good  account  of  the  Bradford  Waterworks  system,  with 
maps,  views,  and  plans,  is  given  in  The  Engineer,  vol.  119, 
pp.  251-254  and  278-280  (March  1915). 

Blackburn  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  of  6820  acres  in  Bowland  Forest  in  Yorkshire, 
comprising  the  watersheds  of  the  Brennand  and  Whitendale 
Streams,  tributaries  of  the  river  Hodder,  at  550  to  1730 
feet  elevation.  The  Corporation  own  153  acres  of  the 
area,  which  is  mostly  moorland,  without  any  plantations 
of  note.  Mr.  W.  Stubbs,  A.M.I.C.E.,  in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil 
Engineers,  vol.  194,  p.  142,  with  map  (1914),  states  that 
the  geological  formation  is  Millstone  Grit,  with  outcrops  of 
shale  and  in  places  of  limestone,  retaining  the  water  for 
long  periods.  The  annual  rainfall  at  six  different  stations 
averaged  for  1887-1912  from  5563  to  71-06  inches.  The 
water  is  not  filtered,  and  no  special  measures  are  taken  to 
prevent  contamination  on  the  gathering  ground.  No  scheme 
of  afforestation  seems  to  have  been  proposed.     See  Fig.  37. 

Skipton  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  a  reservoir  on  Embsay  Moor,  with  a  gathering  ground 
of  700  acres,  entirely  hill  pasture  and  moorland,  free  from 
farms  and  other  sources  of  contamination.  The  water  is  not 
filtered,  but,  owing  to  peaty  discoloration,  the  Council  are 
considering  the  question  of  filtration.  The  reservoir  on 
Eombalds  Moor,  with  207  acres  of  gathering  ground,  of 
which  7  acres  are  plantations,  is  no  longer  used  as  a  supply 


196 


FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 


for  domestic  purposes.      Of  the  total  907  acres  of  gathering 
grounds,  only  about  5  acres  are  owned  by  the  Council. 


ToSlaidbum. 


N»l  C*BIN    HILL 

N°2  BRENNANO 

H«3  MIDDLE  KNOU 

K?4  BAXTON  FELL 

l«?S  WHITENDALE 

N?6  OUNSOP  HOUSE 


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iiit£  I      »      »      »      9 


Fig.  37. — Blackburn.     Breniiand  and  Whitendale  Catchment  Area. 
(From  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engirteers,  vol.  194.) 


Otley  Urban  District   Council   obtains   its   water   supply 
from  March  Ghyll,   Middleton,  with  a  catchment  area  of 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  197 

1400  acres,  between  700  and  1100  feet  elevation,  all  hill 
pasture  and  moorland,  without  any  arable  land  or  planta- 
tions. The  gathering  ground,  of  which  about  10  acres  are 
owned  by  the  Council,  has  no  dwelling-houses  or  farm- 
steadings  upon  it.  No  precautions  against  contamination  of 
the  gathering  ground  are  taken,  but  the  water  is  filtered. 
Mr.  C.  J.  F.  Atkinson,  Clerk  to  the  Council,  considers  that  the 
area  would  be  an  excellent  one  for  an  afforestation  scheme. 
Wharfedale  Rural  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  a  gathering  ground  of  2560  acres  at  Menston, 
between  900  and  1000  feet  elevation,  all  hill  pasture  and 
moorland,  without  any  dwelling-houses  or  farmsteads  upon 
it.  The  Council  owns  only  the  water  rights  of  the  area. 
The  reservoir  at  Four  Lane  Ends  is  at  660  feet  elevation. 

Shipley  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  a  gathering  ground  of  1537  acres  on  Rombalds  Moor, 
lying  between  690  and  1308  feet  elevation,  all  hill  pasture 
and  moor,  with  the  exception  of  2  acres  of  arable  land  and 
7  acres  of  plantations.  There  are  no  habitations  or  farm- 
steads on  the  gathering  ground,  of  which  only  11|-  acres 
are  owned  by  the  District  Council.  Besides  filtration  and 
treatment  of  the  water  with  chalk  and  carbonate  of  soda  to 
prevent  action  on  lead,  no  other  measures  are  considered 
necessary  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  water.  The  Grain- 
cliffe  reservoir  at  845  feet  elevation  serves  for  domestic 
supply,  and  the  Eldwick  reservoir  at  690  feet  elevation 
serves  for  compensation  water. 

Burley-in-Wharfedale  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its 
water  supply  from  a  gathering  ground  of  800  acres,  between 
1000  and  1350  feet  elevation,  all  moorland  and  hill 
pasture;  and  owns  only  20  acres,  the  sites  of  the  Carr 
Bottom,  Low  Lanshaw,  and  High  Lanshaw  reservoirs  on 
Rombalds  Moor,  and  of  Hartley's  reservoir  on  the  Coldstone 
Estate.  The  water  from  three  of  the  four  storage  reservoirs 
is  mechanically  filtered ;  the  fourth  reservoir  is  not  liable 
to  contamination.  No  other  measures  are  considered 
necessary  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  water. 


198  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Baildon  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its'  water  supply 
in  part  from  Weecher  reservoir,  with  a  gathering  ground  of 
379  acres  on  Rombalds  Moor,  all  moorland,  without  any 
plantations  or  arable  land,  and  with  only  one  inhabited 
house  upon  it.  The  Council  owns  none  of  the  gathering 
ground.  The  water  is  not  filtered ;  "  and  no  precautions 
are  considered  necessary  against  contamination." 

Kelghley  obtains  its  water  supply  at  present  from  the 
Watersheddles  reservoir,  at  the  head  of  the  river  Worth, 
at  1100  feet  elevation,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  1600 
acres  ascending  to  1575  feet.  Ponden  reservoir,  at  763 
feet  elevation,  two  miles  down  stream,  with  a  catchment 
area  of  8  6  3  acres,  provides  compensation  water  to  the  river. 
These  two  contiguous  areas  are  situated  on  the  higher 
portions  of  the  Oakworth,  Stanbury,  and  Trawden  Moors,  on 
the  borders  of  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire ;  and  consist 
mainly  of  moorland  over  Millstone  Grit,  without  any 
plantations  and  with  only  143  acres  of  arable  land.  The 
Corporation  have  acquired  the  freehold  of  2577  acres,  and 
have  also  obtained  powers  to  make  bye- laws  for  the 
prevention  of  nuisances  and  pollution  on  the  areas,  which 
are  without  any  population  or  habitations ;  but  no  special 
bye-laws  have  been  as  yet  drawn  up.  The  annual  rainfall 
at  Watersheddles  reservoir  varies  between  39'81  and  68*19 
inches,  averaging  50'30  inches  for  19  years.  The  water 
is  slightly  brownish  in  colour  and  has  an  acid  reaction, 
owing  to  the  peat ;  and  to  obviate  its  action  on  lead,  it 
is  passed  through  filters  at  Oldfield. 

At  present  new  waterworks  are  being  carried  out  by  the 
Keighley  Corporation  in  the  Sladen  Valley,  where  a  reservoir 
called  Lower  Laithe  is  being  formed  by  the  construction  of 
an  earthen  embankment  across  Sladen  Beck,  in  Haworth 
and  Stanbury  parishes.  The  catchment  area,  1080  acres, 
of  which  1000  acres  are  owned  by  the  Corporation,  lies 
between  741  feet,  the  level  of  the  reservoir,  and  1450  feet 
elevation.  There  are  no  plantations  on  any  of  the  catchment 
areas ;  but  a  scheme  of  afforestation  was  under  consideration 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  199 

when  the  war  began,  which  is  held  over  until  more  favour- 
able circumstances  return. 

The  Annual  Beport  of  the  Keighley  Waterworks,  by 
M.  Ratcliffe  Barnett,  M.Inst.  C.E.,  published  in  August 
1915,  gives  a  complete  account  of  the  various  undertakings 
and  is  accompanied  by  a  map.  ' 

Halifax  has  four  moorland  gathering  grounds,  with  a 
total  area  of  7322  acres,  as  follows: 

1.  In  the  Hebble  Valley,  Ogden  reservoir,  at  990  feet 
elevation,  serving  for  compensation  and  domestic  supply, 
has  a  catchment  area  of  1140  acres,  Mixenden  reservoir, 
875  feet  elevation,  domestic  and  general  supply,  has  a 
catchment  area  of  190  acres. 

2.  In  the  Luddenden  Valley,  Fly  or  Warley  reservoir, 
1350  feet  elevation,  compensation,  has  a  catchment  area  of 
919  acres.  Lower  and  Upper  Dean  Head  reservoirs,  975 
and  1000  feet  elevation,  domestic  and  general  supply,  have 
a  catchment  area  of  525  acres. 

3.  Widdop  reservoir,  at  1050  feet  elevation,  on  a  stream 
of  the  same  name,  also  receives  by  a  tunnel  the  water  of 
the  Greave  Valley,  and  serving  for  compensation  and 
general  supply,  has  a  catchment  area  of  2223  acres. 

4.  Lower  Walshaw  Dean  reservoir,  965  feet  elevation, 
for  compensation,  and  Middle  and  Upper  Walshaw  Dean 
reservoirs,  1043  and  1100  feet  elevation,  for  general  supply, 
have  a  united  catchment  area  of  2325  acres. 

The  whole  of  the  gathering  grounds,  the  lowest  point  of 
which  is  8  7  5  feet  elevation,  are  either  moorland  or  mountain 
grazing  over  Millstone  Grit.  The  Corporation  own  only  a 
part  of  the  area,  viz.  1310  acres,  all  in  the  Hebble 
Valley.  The  eminent  botanists,  Mr.  W.  Crump  and 
Dr.  W.  G.  Smith,  who  have  done  so  much  excellent 
work  in  plant  ecology  and  in  producing  vegetation  maps 
of  Yorkshire,  etc.,  strongly  urged  in  1902  the  afforestation 
of  these  gathering  grounds.  In  that  year  38  acres  at 
Ogden  and  12  acres  at  Mixenden  were  planted,  to  which 
37    acres   were   added   in   February    1909.      Success  was 


200  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

anticipated,  as  both  Ogden  and  Mixenden  reservoirs,  though 
situated  at  nearly  1000  feet  e;levation,  lie  in  well-sheltered 
valleys.  I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  report  on 
these  plantations,  as,  for  some  reason  or  another,  little 
interest  has  been  taken  in  afforestation  by  the  Halifax 
Corporation.  No  forester  is  employed.  See  Trans.  Roy. 
Scot.  Arhor.  Sac.  xvii.  pp.  86-92  (1904),  for  reports  on 
the  afforestation  of  the  Halifax  areas. 

Todmorden  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Gorpley  Clough 
reservoir,  with  a  gathering  ground  on  Inchfield  Moor  of 
690  acres,  between  845  and  1500  feet  elevation.  The 
whole  area,  of  which  about  600  acres  are  owned  by  the 
Corporation,  is  hill  pasture  and  moor,  without  any  planta- 
tions or  arable  land,  and  free  from  farmsteads  or  habitations, 
except  the  waterman's  house.  The  water  is  filtered,  and  no 
other  precautions  are  considered  necessary.  See  Trans. 
Liverpool  Engineering  Sac.  xxix.  (1908). 

Morley  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  Witheus 
reservoir  in  Cragg  Vale,  Mytholmroyd,  with  a  gathering 
ground  of  1200  acres,  between  900  and  1000  feet  elevation, 
all  hill  pasture  and  moorland ;  and  no  part  of  it  is  owned 
by  the  Corporation.  The  area  is  without  habitations  or 
farmsteads,  except  a  gamekeeper's  lodge,  uninhabited  at 
present.  The  water  is  filtered,  and  no  other  precautions 
are  considered  necessary. 

Wakefield  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  of  2737  acres,  between  1000  and  1530  feet 
elevation,  with  two  reservoirs.  Green  Withers  at  Rishworth, 
and  Ringstone  at  Barkisland.  The  Ardsley  reservoir,  also 
used  for  storage,  is  not  on  the  catchment  area.  The 
Corporation  have  power  to  utilise  a  further  area  of  600 
acres,  all  moorland  and  lying  between  900  and  1200  feet, 
and  to  construct  thereon  three  additional  (Oxygrains, 
Upper  and  Lower  Booth  Dean)  reservoirs.  The  gathering 
ground  of  2737  acres  to  the  existing  works,  is  all  moorland, 
with  the  exception  of  about  250  acres  of  rough  grass ;  and 
most  of  it  is  covered  with  peat  varying  in  depth  from  one 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  201 

foot  to  eight  or  ten  feet,  overlying  the  grits  and  slates  of  the 
Millstone  Grit,  with  occasional  patches  of  clay.  The  chief 
vegetation  is  rough  moorland  grass  and  bilberry,  with  very 
little  heather.  The  peat  contains  remains  of  roots  and 
stems  of  birch  trees,  but  there  are  probably  now  not  half-a- 
dozen  trees  on  the  whole  ground.  The  catchment  area 
being  within  easy  reach  of  manufacturing  districts,  any 
trees  that  might  be  planted  would  have  to  grow  in  an 
atmosphere  nearly  always  smoke-laden.  The  Corporation 
do  not  own  and  have  no  control  over  the  area,  on  which 
there  is  only  one  habitation,  a  gamekeeper's  house,  the 
drainage  of  which  is  piped  clear  of  the  gathering  ground. 
As  no  farming  operations  are  carried  on,  no  measure,  other 
than  filtration,  is  needed  to  render  the  water  safe.  See 
Titans.  Inst.  Water  Engineers,  xviii.  (1913). 

Hudderslield  obtains  its  water  supply  from  four  gathering 
grounds : 

Blackmoorfoot  reservoir,  catchment  area  of  1871  acres, 
between  830  and  1100  feet  elevation. 

Deer  Hill  reservoir,  catchment  area  of  1000  acres, 
between  1140  and  1400  feet  elevation. 

Wessenden,  Wessenden  Head,  Blakeley,  and  Butterley 
reservoirs,  catchment  area  of  2825  acres,  between  770 
and  1500  feet  elevation. 

Dean  Head  reservoir,  catchment  area  of  500  acres, 
between  1000  and  1200  feet  elevation. 

The  gathering  grounds  aggregate  6196  acres,  which 
comprise  5993  acres  of  moorland  and  hill  pasture,  150 
acres  of  arable  land,  and  53  acres  of  plantations.  The 
Corporation  own  1200  acres,  and  the  plantations  are  upon 
the  land  owned  by  them.  There  are  a  few  scattered 
farmsteads  on  the  watersheds,  the  sewage  from  which  dis- 
charges into  cesspools  that  are  cleared  out  periodically. 
All  the  water  except  that  from  springs  is  filtered.  See 
maps  of  vegetation  and  description  of  Huddersfield  district 
by  T.  W.  Woodhead,  in  Joitrn.  Linnean  Soc.  {Botany),  vol. 
xxxvii.  333-406  (1905). 


202  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Oldham  has  a  moorland  gathering  ground  of  5480  acres 
in  the  Pennine  Eange,  Yorkshire,  of  which  3027  acres  are 
owned  by  the  Corporation.  There  are  three  catchment 
areas  as  follows  :  Eiver  Medlock  area,  660  acres  in  extent, 
between  778  and  1225  feet  elevation;  Eiver  Eoach  area, 
2520  acres  in  extent,  between  690  and  1500  feet  elevation; 
Eiver  Tame  area,  2300  acres  in  extent,  between  762  and 
1500  feet  elevation.  The  Corporation  own  199  acres  on 
the  Medlock  area,  1196  acres  on  the  Eoach  area, and  1632 
acres  on  the  Tame  area. 

Only  40  acres  have  been  planted  with  trees,  viz. 
1 6  acres  each  on  the  Eoach  and  Tame  areas,  and  8  acres  on 
the  Medlock  area.  The  water  is  not  filtered.  The  Cor- 
poration have  been  enabled  by  their  purchase  of  land  to 
demolish  all  the  habitations  on  the  gathering  ground.  On 
the  lands  draining  to  the  domestic  supply  reservoirs,  only 
sheep  grazing  is  allowed  and  no  cultivation  or  manuring  is 
permitted. 

Batley  has  a  gathering  ground  of  1600  acres  at  Holm- 
firth,  on  the  north-east  slope  of  the  Pennine  range,  between 
770  and  1720  feet  elevation,  all  hill  pasture  with  under- 
lying peat,  except  20  acres  of  arable  land  annually  under 
the  plough,  and  25  acres  of  very  poor  plantations.  The 
Corporation  recently  purchased  600  acres  of  the  area, 
all  below  1500  feet  altitude.  There  are  10  habitations 
(some  empty)  and  8  farm-steadings  (some  unused);  but 
the  water  for  domestic  use,  which  is  not  filtered,  is  drawn 
from  the  reservoir  above  the  level  of  the  habitations  and 
cultivated  lands.  Farms  and  buildings  are  carefully  drained, 
and  tillage  is  controlled  as  much  as  possible,  most  of  the 
land  being  used  for  grazing.  There  are  three  storage  reser- 
voirs, Yateholme,  Eiding  Hood,  and  Eamsden,  all  together  on 
the  Eamsden  Clough  Stream  at  the  head-waters  of  the 
river  Holme,  2  to  3  miles  south-west  of  Holmfirth,  and 
^  mile  south-east  of  Holme.  The  annual  rainfall  for  20 
years  ranged  between  40'1  and  73*3  inches,  averaging 
59  inches. 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  203 

Dewsbury  and  Heckmondwike  Waterworks  Board  obtain 
their  water  supply  from  four  catchment  areas  as  follows : 

Dunford  Bridge  Reservoir  1300  acres  between  1100  and  1489  feet  elevation. 
Upper  and  Lower  Windle- 

den  Reservoirs  .  .     702     ,,  ,,  1150    ,,     1500     ,,  ,, 

Harden  Reservoir   .         .     277     ,,         ,,         1201    ,,     1560    ,, 
Snailsden  Reservoir         .     209     ,,         ,,         1369    ,,     1560    ,, 

Of  the  whole  area,  2488  acres,  the  Board  own  only  the 
sites  of  the  reservoirs,  embankments,  and  other  structural 
works.  The  area  is  entirely  moorland,  without  any  cul- 
tivation, and  no  measures  are  considered  necessary  against 
contamination  of  the  water,  which  is  not  filtered.  "  The 
bacteriological  examinations  and  reports  are  always  satis- 
factory." 

Barnsley  has  two  catchment  areas,  viz.  Ingbirchworth 
reservoir,  2000  acres,  between  800  and  1400  feet  elevation, 
and  Midhope  reservoir,  2000  acres,  between  800  and  1600 
feet  elevation.  The  latter  area  is  adjacent  to  the  Langsett 
area  of  Sheffield.  Both  gathering  grounds,  which  are  held 
by  private  owners,  are  nearly  all  pasture  or  moorland,  the 
amount  of  arable  land  being  very  small.  The  Council,  in 
the  spring  of  1917,  planted  out  25,000  Scots  pines  and 
5000  larches.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Sheffield  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  the 
adjacent  moorlands  on  the  west,  which  comprise  three 
watersheds  as  follows  : 

Rivelin  Valley:  4978  acres  at  700  to  1300  feet  alti- 
tude, with  5  reservoirs,  Upper,  Lower,  and  Middle  Redmires 
reservoirs,  at  1150,  1105,  and  1068  feet,  and  Upper 
and  Lower  Rivelin  reservoirs  at  698  and  672  feet 
elevation. 

Loxley  Valley  or  Bradfield  area:  10,725  acres  at  650 
to  1326  feet  altitude,  with  Agden  (643  feet),  Strines 
(814  feet).  Dale  Dike  (696  feet),  and  Damflask  (505  feet) 
reservoirs. 

Little  Don  Valley:  5203  acres  at  1037  to  1516  feet 
elevation,  with  Langsett  reservoir  at  810  feet  altitude.      In 


204  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

the  same  valley  there  is  a  compensation  reservoir  at  Under- 
bank  at  600  feet  elevation  and  draining  3000  acres. 

The  gathering  grounds,  23,906  acres  in  all,  are  not 
owned  by  the  Corporation,  and  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
moorland,  with  a  very  small  population.  No  large  scheme 
for  afforestation  has  been  proposed.  Owing  to  non-owner- 
ship, the  question  has  not  been  taken  up  by  the  Corporation, 
who  have  planted  small  areas  immediately  adjacent  to  the 
reservoirs  on  suitable  soil  with  Scots  pine,  larch,  and  birch. 
The  engineer,  Mr.  L.  S.  M.  Marsh,  doubts  whether  advan- 
tage would  be  derived  by  planting  exposed  moorland.  See 
notes  on  the  Sheffield  water  supply  in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil 
Engineers,  vol.  181,  pp.  1-14  (1910). 

The  Sheffield  Corporation  decided  in  1913  to  proceed 
with  the  construction  of  two  new  reservoirs,  Broomhead  and 
More  Hall  reservoirs,  with  a  catchment  area  of  6496  acres 
in  the  Ewdeu  Valley,  which  is  a  short  arm  of  the  Little  Don 
Valley.  The  gathering  ground  includes  the  well-known 
Broomhead  moor,  and  the  valley  itself  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  Yorkshire.  The  new  project  is  described,  with 
sketch  map  of  the  four  catchment  areas  and  views  of  Ewden 
Valley,  in  Tlic  Engineer,  14th  Nov.  1913,  pp.  510  and  520. 

Sheffield  obtains  an  independent  water  supply  from  the 
Derwent  Valley  Water  Board. 

Doncaster  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  an  im- 
pounding reservoir  at  Thrybergh,  with  2517  acres  of  gather- 
ing ground  on  the  hills  south-west  of  Conisborough,  all 
pasture  and  arable  land  at  the  low  elevation  of  180  to  450 
feet.  Most  of  the  area  does  not  belong  to  the  Corporation, 
who  merely  exercise  sanitary  control  over  it.  I  am  in- 
formed officially,  that  "  As  the  character  of  the  land  was 
entirely  rural  at  the  time  the  impounding  reservoir  was 
constructed,  no  farms  or  houses  were  removed ;  and  there 
are  certainly  not  more  than  40  habitations  on  the  whole  of 
the  area  at  the  present  moment.  It  has  only  been  found 
necessary  to  exercise  supervision  over  the  manuring  of  the 
arable  land,  and  the  removal  of  carcases  from  the  neigh- 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS      205 

bourhood  of  the  water  courses,  to  guard  against  pollution. 
Practically  no  difficulty  has  arisen  since  the  establishment 
of  the  Thrybergh  reservoir,  from  the  point  of  view  of  pollu- 
tion ;  and  any  small  difficulty  which  may  arise  from  time 
to  time  has  up  till  now  been  settled  mutually." 

Guisborough  Water  Company  obtain  their  supply  from  the 
Wentworth  Plantation  reservoir,  with  a  gathering  ground 
of  550  acres,  between  500  and  750  feet  elevation.  The 
area,  which  is  all  moorland,  except  50  acres  of  planta- 
tions, is  without  habitations  or  farmsteads.  The  water 
is  filtered,  and  no  other  measures  are  taken  against  con- 
tamination. 

Yeadon  Waterworks  Company  obtain  their  supply  from 
Reva  reservoir,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  720  acres  on 
Hawks  worth  Moor,  between  750  and  800  feet  elevation,  all 
hill  pasture  and  moorland  and  without  plantations.  The 
Company  have  water  rights  over  the  area,  of  which  they 
own  only  30  acres.  There  is  one  farmstead  and  two 
cottages  on  the  gathering  ground.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Thirsk  District  Water  Company,  Ltd.,  obtain  their  water 
supply  from  a  gathering  ground  at  Boltby,  800  acres  in 
extent,  between  650  and  1200  feet  elevation.  The  whole 
area  is  covered  with  heather  and  bracken,  and  is  without 
habitations  or  plantations,  none  of  it  being  owned  by  the 
Company.  There  is  nothing  to  contaminate  the  water, 
which  is  strained  but  not  filtered. 

Cleveland  Water  Company  obtain  their  water  supply 
in  part  from  a  gathering  ground  of  1150  acres  in  Stanghow 
and  Moorsholm,  between  650  and  920  feet  elevation.  The 
Company  have  no  rights  over  the  area,  except  a  perpetual 
easement  over  42  acres  covered  by  the  Lock  wood  Moorland 
reservoir  and  filter  beds.  The  gathering  ground  is  all 
moorland  without  habitations  or  plantations,  and  there  is 
no  chance  of  contamination  of  the  water. 


206 


rOEESTS,  WOODS.  AND  TREES 


V.  Cheshire  and  Derbyshire 

Ten  local  authorities  obtain  their  water  supply  from 
gathering  grounds  with  a  total  extent  of  48,743  acres,  of 
which  10,522  acres  are  owned  by  six  Corporations.  The  chief 
authorities  owning  water  catchment  areas  in  Cheshire  and 
Derbyshire  are  Manchester,  Ashton-under-Lyne,  Stockport, 


-rOTAl.  AREA  A.OOO  ACRES 


Fig.  38. — Longdendale,  Derwent  Valley,  and  neighbouring  Catchment  Areas. 

and  Derwent  Valley  Water  Board.  Small  plantations  exist 
on  several  of  the  areas,  but  no  large  scheme  of  afforesta- 
tion has  been  proposed  by  any  of  the  authorities.  Dr.  C.  E. 
Moss  gives  in  his  book.  Vegetation  of  the  Peak  District 
(1912),  two  maps,  on  which  the  position  of  the  reservoirs, 
the  distribution  of  the  vegetation,  etc.,  of  most  of  these 
catchment  areas  are  well  shown. 


Longdendale   catchment   area,    19,300    acres,  supplying 


Elevation, 

Acres. 

Feet  O.D. 

1700 

750  to  1700 

1300 

600  to  1620 

830 

1550  to  1700 

900 

900  to  1700 

WATEE  CATCHMENT  AREAS  207 

Manchester;  about   6400   acres    are  owned    by   the   Man- 
chester Corporation.      See  full  description,  p.  98. 

Ashton-under-Lyne,  Stalybridge,  and  Dukinfleld  (District) 
Waterworks  Joint  Committee  obtain  their  supply  from  three 
catchment  areas  : 

Greenfield  Valley,  intake  of  Greenfield  Brook  . 
Swineshaw  Valley,  intake  at  Swineshaw  Moor 
Chew  Valley,  above  the  reservoir  . 
Chew  Valley,  below  the  reservoir  . 

Total     .  .     4730 

The  storage  reservoirs  with  their  elevations  above  sea- 
level  are  :  Brushes,  649  feet;  Lower  Swineshaw,  871  feet; 
Higher  Swineshaw,  957  feet;  Yeoman  Hey,  768  feet;  and 
Greenfield,  892  feet.  There  are  also  two  compensation 
reservoirs — Walker  Wood,  588  feet,  and  Chew,  1600  feet. 

The  Joint  Committee  have  purchased  and  own  2500 
acres,  namely,  1310  acres  in  Greenfield  area,  70  acres  in 
Swineshaw  area,  and  1120  acres  in  Chew  area.  There  is 
one  holding  on  Greenfield  area,  one  holding  on  Swineshaw 
area,  and  two  holdings  on  that  part  of  Chew  area  which 
is  not  used  for  domestic  supply  ;  but  there  are  restrictions 
as  to  manures,  and  animals  kept  on  the  farms,  besides  close 
inspection.  The  water  is  filtered.  There  are  the  remains 
of  what  were  formerly  plantations,  but  which  now  consist 
of  a  few  straggling  trees  only.  This  appears  to  be  due  to 
atmospheric  change,  as  there  is  evidence  that  in  days  gone 
by  trees  were  very  prevalent  and  flourishing  on  the 
gathering  ground.  The  engineer,  Mr.  G.  R.  Raddin, 
B.E.,  says  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  have  ownership 
control  of  the  area,  as  there  is  less  trespassing,  better 
regulation  of  indiscriminate  rambling,  with  restrictions  as 
to  manuring  land  and  grazing  of  cattle,  and  with  poM^er  to 
clear  land  of  farms. 

Stockport  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  catchment 
areas — Lyme  Park  area,  1400  acres,  between  650  feet  and 


208  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

1300  feet  elevation,  with  two  storage  reservoirs,  Bollinhurst 
and  Horse  Coppice  ;  and  Kinder  (Hay field)  area,  2130  acres, 
between  916  and  2080  feet  elevation,  with  Kinder 
reservoir,  two  miles  distant  from  Hayfield,  and  at  the 
base  of  Kinder  Scout,  the  highest  point  on  the  area.  The 
Lyme  Park  area  consists  of  540  acres  of  moor,  652  acres 
of  arable  land  and  pasture,  180  acres  of  woodland,  and 
2  8  acres  of  water.  The  Kinder  area  consists  of  1882  acres 
of  moor,  180  acres  of  arable  and  pasture,  25  acres  of  wood- 
land, and  43  acres  of  water.  The  Corporation  own  44  acres 
of  the  Lyme  Park  area  and  220  acres  of  the  Kinder  area. 
The  water  is  filtered,  and  "  all  farmsteads  are  drained,  and 
the  drainage  used  to  irrigate  the  land  by  special  means." 
On  the  Kinder  area,  arrangements  have  been  made  with  the 
owners  that  no  cultivation  shall  take  place  and  no  cattle 
shall  be  allowed.  There  is  only  one  dwelling,  the  drainage 
from  which,  after  treatment,  is  delivered  to  the  stream  below 
the  reservoir  embankment.  The  average  annual  rainfall 
on  the  Kinder  area  is  42  inches,  and  on  the  Lyme  Park 
gathering  ground  33  inches. 

The  two  watersheds  on  the  Sett  and  Hollingworth 
Clough,  some  2430  acres  in  extent,  adjoining  the  Kinder 
area,  are  included  in  the  completed  scheme  of  supply,  but 
it  is  not  anticipated  that  further  works  will  be  required  for 
many  years.  The  upper  part  of  these  areas  is  covered  with 
peat,  varying  in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet, 
and  is  destitute  of  population  and  free  from  pollution. 

An  account  of  the  Stockport  water  supply  with  map  is 
given  by  Mr.  T.  Molyneux,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  in  Trans.  List. 
Water  Engineers,  xix.  No.  3  (1914).  See  also  The  Engineer, 
12th  July  1912,  p.  29. 

Macclesfield  obtains  its  water  supply  from  upland 
gathering  grounds  in  Sutton  and  Macclesfield  Forest,  in 
connection  with  four  storage  reservoirs,  as  follows : 

Ridgegate  Reservoir         .  980  acres  at  780  to  1320  feet  altitude. 

Bottoms  Reservoir  .         .  420        ,,        680  „   1530    ,, 

Tegsnose  Wood  Reservoir  450        ,,        690  „   1250    ,,         ,, 

Leadbetters  Reservoir      .  350        ,,       620  „   1200    ,,         „ 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  209 

thus  making  a  total  of  2200  acres  of  catchment  area,  which 
consists  of  1900  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moorland  and  300 
acres  of  woodland  and  plantations.  The  Corporation  only- 
own  9  0  acres,  but  have  all  water  rights  over  1750  acres,  and 
part  rights  over  450  acres.  There  are  four  habitations  and 
1 8  farm-steadings  on  the  area.  The  water  is  filtered.  The 
Macclesfield  Forest  has  been  fully  described  by  Miss  Lilian 
Baker  in  Geographical  Journal,  xlvi.  213,  289  (1915): 

"  Popularly  described  as  moorland,  it  is  really  grassland, 
of  the  siliceous  type,  the  drier  parts  having  Nardus  stricta 
dominant,  with  Agrostis  alba  and  canina,  Luzula  campestris, 
and  various  species  of  Carex.  The  grey  colour  of  the 
JSFardus  during  autumn,  winter,  and  early  spring  adds 
largely  to  the  bleak  aspect  of  the  district.  The  wetter 
parts,  with  Molinia  coerulea  dominant,  have  also  heather. 
Erica  cinerea  and  tetralix,  Scirpus  caespitosus,  and  various 
species  of  Juncus.  The  upland  farms  are  now  largely  given 
up  to  sheep  and  cattle  rearing,  but  the  nearness  of  indus- 
trial centres,  the  excellence  of  the  roads,  and  the  industry 
of  the  farmers  are  shown  in  the  height  to  which  cultivation 
has  been  pushed.  Oats  occur  up  to  1000  feet,  and  wheat 
ascends  to  500  feet.  Owing  to  the  effect  of  wind,  trees  are 
now  confined  to  sheltered  valleys.  Birch  occurs  on  steep 
slopes  high  up.  Scots  pine  has  been  extensively  planted, 
and  been  very  successful.  Afforesting  would  need  so  much 
capital  that  the  farmer  prefers  the  smaller  profits  and 
quicker  returns  of  sheep  farming." 

Glossop  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Swinshaw 
reservoir,  1|-  miles  north  of  the  town,  and  situated  on  the 
Blackshaw  Clough  stream,  with  a  catchment  area  of  500 
acres  on  Blake  Moor,  between  733  and  1200  feet  elevation. 
The  gathering  ground  is  entirely  hill  pasture  and  moorland, 
without  any  habitations  or  farmsteads,  and  is  free  from 
contamination.  None  of  the  area  is  owned  by  the 
Corporation.  "  The  water,  before  reaching  the  reservoir, 
passes  through  a  settling  tank  ;  flood  water  is  turned  to  waste. 
The  water,  which  is  not  filtered,  is  found  pure  on  analysis." 

p 


210  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Buxton  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply- 
in  part  from  two  gathering  grounds — Coombs  Moss  area, 
200  acres,  between  1300  and  1400  feet  elevation,  with 
two  reservoirs  at  Lightwood ;  and  Stanley  Moss  area,  1700 
acres,  between  1450  and  1550  feet  elevation,  with  one 
reservoir.  These  areas,  which  are  not  owned  by  the 
Council,  are  entirely  moorland,  without  habitations,  farm- 
steads, or  plantations.  The  water  is  passed  through  high- 
pressure  filters. 

The  Derwent  Valley  Water  Board  supply  water  to 
Derby,  Leicester,  Nottingham,  and  Sheffield  from  a  catch- 
ment area  of  13,220  acres  at  the  head- waters  of  the  river 
Derwent  in  High  Peak,  Derbyshire  and  Yorkshire.  It  is 
mostly  rough  pasture  and  heather-covered  grouse  moors, 
with  steep  hill  slopes,  the  elevation  ranging  from  700  to 
1793  feet.  The  Board  own  1184  acres,  fringing  the  two 
reservoirs,  Howden  reservoir  (870  feet  altitude)  and  Derwent 
reservoir  (776  feet  altitude).  There  were  a  few  farm-houses 
on  this  part  of  the  area  which  was  mostly  rough  grazing, 
but  there  now  remain  only  three  dwelling-houses,  one 
unoccupied  and  two  inhabited  by  the  Board's  workmen. 
The  sewage  from  all  three  houses  soaks  through  the  land 
before  it  reaches  the  reservoir.  The  Board  have  no  rights 
over  the  privately  owned  portion  of  the  catchment  area,  but 
they  have  power  to  agree  as  to  the  drainage  of  the  lands 
for  more  effectually  collecting,  conveying,  and  preserving 
the  purity  of  the  waters  flowing  on  such  lands  into  the 
reservoirs. 

The  Board  have  planted  up  to  February  1918,  within 
the  boundary  of  their  land,  310  acres  of  plantations  at  eleva- 
tions between  700  and  1500  feet.  There  are  a  few 
plantations  outside  the  Board's  lands.  The  annual  rainfall 
of  59  stations  for  13  years  varied  from  34  to  61  inches. 
All  the  water,  except  that  supplied  to  Sheffield,  is  passed 
through  sand  filters  at  Bamford. 

The  works  authorised  by  Act  of  Parliament  of  1899,  of 
which  only  the  Howden  and  Derwent  reservoirs  have  been 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AEEAS      211 

completed,  comprised  in  all  six  reservoirs  (one  of  which,  the 
highest  and  smallest,  has  been  abandoned),  with  a  total 
gathering  ground  of  31,946  acres,  at  an  elevation  varying 
from  500  to  2000  feet.  Full  particulars  of  the  entire 
scheme  were  given  by  Mr.  E.  Sandeman,  M.Tnst.C.E.,  in 
Proc.  Inst.  C.E.  vol.  194,  pp.  22-35,  with  map  (1914);  in 
Trans.  Inst.  Water  Engineers,  xvi.  pp.  71-75,  with  map 
(1912);  and  in  a  paper  read  at  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers  on  9th  April  1918.  The  watershed  is  described 
by  H.  H.  Arnold-Bemrose,  Derbyshire,  p.  21  (1910). 

Chesterfield  Gas  and  Water  Board  obtain  part  of  their 
Avater  supply  from  a  gathering  ground  at  Linacre,  with 
three  storage  reservoirs,  1333  acres  in  extent,  between  470 
and  1000  feet  elevation.  The  area,  of  which  the  Board 
only  own  84  acres,  comprises  50  acres  of  arable  land,  1027 
acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  and  172  acres  of  planta- 
tions. There  are  habitations  and  farm-steadings  upon  the 
area,  and  no  special  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent 
contamination  of  the  gathering  ground.  The  water  is 
filtered. 

Chesterfield  Rural  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  two  catchment  areas : 

Press  gathering  ground,  500  acres,  between  700  and 
1000  feet  elevation ;  all  arable  land,  with  a  few  dwelling- 
houses  and  farmsteads  upon  it. 

Barbrook  gathering  ground,  1030  acres,  between  1000 
and  1200  feet  elevation ;  all  hill  pasture  and  moor,  without 
any  habitations  or  farmsteads. 

The  Council  owns  no  part  of  either  area.  No  special 
measures  are  taken  against  contamination.  The  water  of 
the  Press  area  is  filtered. 

Nantwich  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  a  gathering  ground  of  500  acres  at  Baddiley,  consist- 
ing of  agricultural  land  at  a  low  elevation.  The  Council 
owns  only  two  acres,  which  are  willow  beds  and  bog.  The 
water,  although  filtered,  is  reported  to  be  bacteriologically 


212  rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

polluted  and  unsafe.  No  measures  have  been  taken  or  are 
contemplated  to  acquire  ownership.  Steps  were  taken  to 
obtain  a  new  supply  from  springs  at  Madeley  (Salop),  but 
the  project  has  been  postponed  on  account  of  the  war. 


VI.  Northamptonshire,  Leicestershire,  and 
Lincolnshire 

Six  local  authorities  and  one  private  company  obtain 
their  water  supply  from  gathering  grounds  with  a  total 
extent  of  24,774  acres,  of  which  698  acres  are  owned  by 
three  Corporations. 

These  Midland  catchment  areas,  some  of  which  supply 
large  centres  of  population,  are  not  situated  in  high  moor- 
land districts,  but  on  the  contrary  consist  of  agricultural 
land  with  dwelling-houses  and  farm-steadings.  Whether 
the  bye-laws  and  other  precautions  taken  against  con- 
tamination are  adequate  is  a  matter  of  opinion.  The  main 
arguments  for  the  present  system  are  that  farms  are  very 
expensive  to  purchase,  and  that  afforestation,  after  the 
abandonment  of  agriculture  and  removal  of  the  farm- 
houses, would  be  costly  at  the  start,  with  only  remote 
prospects  of  financial  returns  in  the  distant  future. 
Kettering  affords  a  good  example  of  the  difficulties  with 
which  local  authorities  have  to  contend.  Attention  may 
also  be  paid  to  low-lying  catchment  areas  in  other  districts, 
as  those  of  Doncaster,  Nantwich,  Exmouth,  etc. 

Northampton  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from 
Teeton  Brook,  with  a  storage  reservoir  near  Eavensthorpe, 
with  a  gathering  ground  of  3000  acres,  between  353  and 
630  feet  elevation,  consisting  mainly  of  arable  land  and 
pasture,  and  with  49  dwelling-houses  upon  it.  The 
Corporation  own  500  acres  of  the  area,  and  "  treat  the 
sewage  of  properties  within  the  gathering  ground  so  as 
to  prevent  direct  connection  of  offensive  matter  with 
the  streams  flowing  into  the  reservoir."  The  water  is 
filtered. 


214  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Higham  Ferrers  and  Rushden  Water  Board  obtain  their 
water  supply  in  part  from  an  upland  gathering  ground  of 
1747  acres  at  Sywell,  between  260  and  400  feet  elevation. 
The  Board  own  only  65  acres  immediately  adjoining  the 
Sywell  storage  reservoir.  The  gathering  ground,  of  which 
I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  definite  particulars, 
appears  to  consist  of  arable  land  and  pasture,  with 
habitations  and  farmsteads  upon  it.  Besides  filtration,  no 
special  measures  are  taken  to  prevent  contamination  of  the 
gathering  ground. 

Kettering  has  two  catchment  areas:  (1)  Cransley,  about 
1800  acres,  and  (2)  Thorpe  Malsor,  1330  acres.  The 
Urban  District  Council  have  been  able  to  purchase  only 
the  actual  sites  of  the  two  reservoirs  and  a  small 
margin  round  them,  the  land  now  owned  at  the  Cransley 
waterworks  being  73  acres,  and  at  the  Thorpe  Malsor 
reservoir  60  acres.  Mr.  T.  Eeader  Smith,  the  engineer 
in  charge,  in  his  interesting  report  in  Journ.  Sanitary 
Instit.  xxii.  479  of  1901,  explained  that  the  catch- 
ment areas,  being  agricultural  land  with  numerous  farm- 
steadings  and  other  buildings,  were  much  too  expensive 
to  purchase.  In  order  to  keep  the  area  in  a  proper 
sanitary  condition,  the  Council  obtained  powers,  in  the 
Kettering  Urban  District  Water  Act,  1901,  Section  30, 
to  make  bye-laws  for  this  purpose.  Under  clause  4  of 
this  section,  the  Council  are  liable  to  pay  compensation 
to  owners  and  other  persons  interested,  who  may  be 
injuriously  affected  by  any  restrictions  imposed  by  such 
bye-laws.  The  Council  instituted  enquiries  and  ascer- 
tained that  other  water  authorities,  with  similar  powers 
in  their  water  acts,  had  refrained  from  making  bye-laws 
because  of  the  expense  to  which  they  might  be  put  on 
account  of  the  various  compensations  that  might  be 
demanded.  The  Kettering  Council  is  still  in  the  position 
that  while  it  has  power  to  make  bye-laws,  none  have  as 
yet  been  made.  Meanwhile,  the  Council  merely  keep  an 
oversight  over  the  catchment  areas,  making  inspections  from 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS      215 

time  to  time  to  see  that  reasonable  sanitary  conditions  are 
maintained ;  and  for  so  far  this  is  said  to  have  worked 
satisfactorily.  The  water  collected  from  the  catchment 
areas  is  filtered,  and  undergoes  a  chemical  examination 
quarterly.  Nevertheless,  the  conditions  are  not  ideal,  as 
may  be  inferred  from  the  following  account  supplied  me  by 
Mr.  T.  Reader  Smith. 

The  catchment  areas  are  geologically  Northampton  sands, 
which  contain  a  great  deal  of  ironstone,  worked  by  open 
quarrying.  In  1917,  the  Cransley  area  contained  ap- 
proximately 790  acres  of  arable  land,  830  acres  of  grazing 
land,  and  88  acres  of  woods,  and  the  Thorpe  Malsor  area 
contained  approximately  620  acres  of  arable  land,  630 
acres  of  grazing  land,  and  34  acres  of  woods.  On  the 
Cransley  area  there  are  numerous  habitations,  including  7 
large  houses,  a  corn-mill,  16  cottages,  and  3  separate  cow- 
sheds and  yards ;  and  besides,  allotment  ground  and 
ironstone  workings.  On  the  Thorpe  Malsor  catchment 
area  there  are  4  large  houses,  a  public-house,  8  cottages, 
and  an  isolated  cowshed,  besides  some  iron  workings.  I 
have  no  information  how  the  sewage  from  the  human 
habitations,  cow-houses,  etc.,  is  diverted  from  the  water 
that  eventually  finds  its  way  into  the  reservoirs. 

Loughborough  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  areas 
in  the  Charnwood  Forest  district,  with  a  total  extent  of 
3917  acres.  Nanpantan  reservoir,  on  the  Woodbrook 
stream,  has  a  gathering  ground  of  1050  acres,  with  9 
habitations  and  farmsteads  upon  it.  Blackbrook  reservoir, 
on  the  Blackbrook  stream,  near  Shepshed,  has  a  gathering 
ground  of  2867  acres,  with  32  habitations  and  farmsteads 
upon  it.  The  Corporation  own  no  part  of  the  two  areas, 
but  "  all  farms  and  occupied  premises  are  inspected  period- 
ically to  ensure  that  the  sewage  and  other  sources  of 
pollution  are  properly  dealt  with,  and  the  water  courses  not 
contaminated."  The  water  is  filtered.  I  have  not  been 
furnished  with  any  description  of  the  gathering  grounds, 
which  as  regards  afforestation  are  probably  similar  in  their 


216  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

conditions  to  the  adjoining  catchment  areas  of  the  Leicester 
Corporation. 

Leicester  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  three 
gathering  grounds,  each  with  a  storage  reservoir,  in  the 
Charnwood  Forest  district:  (1)  Thornton,  2860  acres; 
(2)  Bradgate  Park,  4400  acres;  and  (3)  Swithland,  3500 
acres;  in  all,  10,760  acres,  over  red  marl  and  clay.  The 
average  elevation  is  400  feet,  the  highest  point  in  the 
district  being  Bardon  Hill,  902  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
land  consists  of  small  woods,  poor  pasture,  arable  land,  and 
rocks ;  and  the  Council  only  own  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs 
and  a  small  margin  around  them.  About  two  hundred 
years  ago,  the  timber  in  this  district,  mostly  oak,  was  all 
cleared,  and  the  land  remained  bare  till  the  Enclosure  of 
1812,  when  the  high  price  of  corn  encouraged  tillage. 
Numerous  small  woods,  mostly  oak  and  larch,  were  planted 
later.  The  rocks  are  Cambrian  syenite,  slate  and  trap,  very 
hard  but  overlaid  in  the  valleys  with  boulder  clay  and  other 
glacial  detritus.  Mr.  L.  Fosbrooke  of  Eavenstone  Hall, 
Leicester,  who  is  well  acquainted  with  the  neighbourhood, 
is  of  opinion  that  these  gathering  grounds  would  be  suitable 
for  the  creation  of  a  coniferous  forest,  exceeding  10,000 
acres  in  extent.  Such  a  forest  would  prove  remunerative 
within  a  short  term  of  years  on  account  of  the  demand  for 
pitwood  by  the  collieries  on  the  western  boundary  of  the 
district.  Sir  J.  Eolleston,  liowever,  at  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture Conference  on  Afforestation,  in  1907,  gave  his 
opinion  as  follows :  "  Those  Corporations  like  Liverpool, 
which  have  bought  their  watersheds  and  have  large  tracts 
of  land  of  no  value  for  pasture  or  agriculture,  can  produce 
these  schemes ;  but  other  towns  which  have  not  the  land 
would  not  be  able  to  do  so.  For  instance,  a  town  like 
Leicester,  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  best  grazing  districts 
of  the  country,  would  hardly  be  likely  to  find  lands  suitable 
for  any  extensive  scheme  of  afforestation." 

Melton  Mowbray  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  a  gathering  ground  of  300  acres  at  Scalford, 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AREAS      217 

between  390  and  421  feet  elevation.  The  Council  owns 
none  of  the  land,  but  pays  way-leaves  for  part  of  the 
gathering  drains  as  permanent  compensation,  and  pays  rental 
for  the  rest.  These  gathering  drains  are  not  satisfactory  in 
the  absence  of  a  reservoir  and  filters,  as  the  supply  is  very 
intermittent,  and  at  times  would  be  quite  insufficient,  except 
for  a  temporary  supply  obtained  by  pumping  from  springs 
at  Scalford.  No  other  measures  have  been  taken  by  the 
Council,  who,  however,  contemplated  a  new  scheme  just 
before  the  war  broke  out. 

Boston  Waterworks  Company  obtain  their  water  supply 
from  Miningsby  Beck  and  Claxby  Beck,  with  a  gathering 
ground  of  1920  acres,  between  130  and  330  feet  elevation, 
none  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Company.  The  area 
comprises  1020  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  100  acres 
of  plantations,  and  800  acres  of  arable  land,  with  three 
small  farmsteads  and  about  thirty  houses.  "  Drainage  from 
farms  and  buildings  is  carried  into  septic  tanks  and  dis- 
charged over  grass  land  before  getting  into  the  natural 
stream.  Every  house  on  the  watershed  is  periodically 
visited,  and  any  defects  in  the  disposal  of  slopwater  are 
noted  and  remedied."  The  water  is  filtered.  The  Manager 
of  the  Waterworks,  Mr.  John  Shaw,  says  that  the  80  acres 
of  plantations  around  the  reservoirs  at  Eevesby  and  Claxby 
Pluckacre  are  not  an  unmixed  blessing,  as  the  fall  of  the 
leaves  perceptibly  increases  the  albuminoid  ammonia  in 
autumn,  when  the  prevailing  wind  blows  large  quantities 
of  dead  leaves  into  the  water.  He  believes,  however,  that 
the  trees  attract  moisture  and  prevent  evaporation,  as  com- 
pared with  cultivated  land  on  their  watershed. 

Scunthorpe  Urban  District  Council  is  reported  in  Parlia- 
mentary "  Eeturn  as  to  Water  Undertakings  in  England 
and  Wales,"  1915,  p.  126,  to  obtain  its  water  supply  from 
an  upland  gathering  ground  over  limestone  of  1200  acres. 
The  water  is,  however,  an  underground  supply  which  is 
tapped  by  three  borings  at  Eoxby,  Scunthorpe,  and  Rough 


218  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Bottom  Plantation.  There  is  no  filtration.  See  W.  A.  E. 
Ussher,  "  Eeport  on  Geology  of  Eisby  Warren,"  printed  at 
Scunthorpe  in  1912.  This  gathering  ground  is  not  included 
in  the  total  24,774  acres,  of  p.  212. 


VII.  Severn  Basin,  Devon,  and  Cornwall 

Twenty  local  authorities  and  two  private  companies 
obtain  their  water  supply  from  gathering  grounds  aggre- 
gating 34,103  acres,  of  which  10,862  acres  are  owned  by 
nine  Corporations.  The  most  important  areas  owned  by 
local  authorities  are  those  of  Plymouth,  Torquay,  Paignton, 
and  Stratford-on-Avon.  A  good  deal  of  planting  is  being 
regularly  carried  out  by  the  Torquay  Corporation  on  their 
area.  Plymouth  is  contemplating  a  scheme  of  afforestation 
after  the  war.  There  are  considerable  plantations  on  the 
Taunton,  Exmouth,  Penzance,  and  Wellington  (Salop)  areas. 
The  Plymouth  water  catchment  area  has  an  interesting 
history,  and  is  exceptional  in  the  amount  of  water  which  it 
stores  up. 

Church  Stretton  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  a  gathering  ground  of  700  acres,  between  900 
and  1550  feet  elevation,  on  the  Long  Mynd  Hill  in  Shrop- 
shire. The  area,  of  which  none  is  owned  by  the  Council, 
is  all  hill  pasture  and  moor,  without  habitations,  farmsteads, 
or  plantations.  The  water  is  not  filtered,  and  no  special 
measures  are  taken  on  the  gathering  ground  against 
contamination. 

Wellington  (Salop)  Urban  District  Council  obtains  part 
of  its  water  supply  from  the  Wrekin  and  Buckatree 
streams,  with  a  catchment  area  of  500  acres,  between  500 
and  1284  feet  elevation.  The  gathering  ground,  none  of 
which  is  owned  by  the  Council,  comprises  170  acres  of  hill 
pasture  and  moor,  and  330  acres  of  plantations,  and  has 
one  small  farmstead  and  a  refreshment  house  upon  it.  The 
water  is  filtered,  and  sterilised  by  means  of  chlorine. 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS      219 

Malvern  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
in  part  from  two  gathering  grounds : 

(1)  Malvern  Hill,  north  of  Wyche  Cutting,  with  three 
small  covered  reservoirs,  300  acres,  between  650  and  1300 
feet  elevation ;  and  (2)  British  Camp  reservoir,  with  a 
gathering  ground  of  177  acres,  between  650  and  1000  feet 
elevation. 

The  areas,  none  of  which  are  owned  by  the  Council,  are 
all  hill  pasture,  without  habitations.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Full  particulars  of  the  Malvern  water  supply  were 
given  by  Mr.  W.  Osborne  Thorp  in  Proc.  Inst.  Municipal 
and  County  Engineers,  vol.  35,  p.  238  (1909).    ■ 

Stratford-upon-Avon  obtains  its  supply  from  the  Snitter- 
field  reservoir,  3  miles  distant,  and  at  296  feet  altitude,  to 
which  the  water  is  conveyed  by  a  conduit,  |^  mile  long, 
from  the  Snitterfield  brook.  The  water  is  filtered.  The 
Town  Council  purchased  the  Way  field  estate  of  430  acres 
in  1893  for  £7546,  and  the  Comyns  Park  estate  of  292 
acres  in  1897  for  £5440,  making  a  total  of  722  acres, 
upon  which  the  gathering  ground  of  490  acres  is  situated. 
This  consisted  in  1918  of  58  acres  of  arable  land,  422 
acres  of  pasture,  q,ud  10  acres  of  woodland.  Its  highest 
point  is  366  feet  above  sea-level,  and  the  average  annual 
rainfall  is  2  7  inches.  "  The  ownership  of  the  gathering 
ground  gives  the  Corporation  full  control  over  the  method 
of  cultivation  and  manuring,  and  affords  the  greatest 
security  that  can  be  looked  for  against  contamination." 

Cheltenham  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  the 
Dowdeswell  reservoir,  on  the  river  Chelt.  with  a  catchment 
area  of  1430  acres  in  the  Cots  wold  Hills,  on  which  there 
are  habitations  and  farmsteads.  None  of  the  area  belongs 
to  the  Corporation.  No  precautions,  other  than  sand 
filtration,  are  taken  with  regard  to  purification,  except  that 
a  drainage  system  has  been  constructed  for  conveying  the 
sewage,  etc.,  of  all  houses  on  the  area  to  a  point  below  the 
reservoir. 


220  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Gloucester  obtains  part  of  its  water  supply  from  two 
catchment  areas  : 

1.  A  gathering  ground  of  260  acres  on  Eobinswood 
Hill,  an  outlier  of  the  Cotswolds,  2  miles  south-east  of 
Gloucester,  between  155  and  651  feet  elevation,  all  hill 
pasture  except  1 2  acres  of  plantations.  There  are  4  farms 
on  the  area,  the  drainage  of  which  is  taken  outside  the 
watershed  of  the  reservoirs ;  and  the  water  is  filtered 
before  reaching  the  city.  The  Corporation  own  about 
7  acres. 

2.  Witcombe  gathering  ground  of  1500  acres,  between 
293  and  900  feet  elevation,  with  three  impounding 
reservoirs  at  the  base  of  an  escarpment  on  the  northern 
face  of  the  Cotswold  Hills,  about  6  miles  east  of  Gloucester. 
The  water  is  derived  from  springs  thrown  out  at  the 
600-feet  contour  line,  just  above  the  Lias  clay.  The  total 
area  comprises  12  acres  of  arable  land,  988  acres  of  hill 
pasture,  and  500  acres  of  plantations.  There  are  5  farms 
and  Witcombe  Park  on  the  gathering  ground,  the  sewage  of 
which  drains  into  cesspools.  The  water  is  filtered.  The 
Corporation  own  only  42  acres.  Trees  do  well,  oak, 
elm,  sycamore,  and  lime  thriving  on  the  Lias  formation,  and 
beech,  pine,  and  larch  on  the  Oolite.  The  annual  rainfall, 
varying  from  20'37  to  42-37  inches,  averages  about  30 
inches. 

Newport,  Monmouthshire,  obtains  its  water  supply  from 
two  catchment  areas,  aggregating  3630  acres: 

1.  An  intake  at  Henllys  from  the  Pant  yr  eos  and 
Henllys  Brooks,  with  a  catchment  area  of  2026  acres, 
between  123  and  1300  feet  elevation,  of  which  the  Corpora- 
tion own  about  66^  acres.  There  are  approximately  150 
persons  dwelling  on  the  gathering  ground,  which  consists 
of  1467  acres  of  mountain  pasture,  with  some  arable  land, 
and  559  acres  of  plantations.  There  are  two  storage 
reservoirs  at  Kogerstone,  and  one  at  Pant  yr  eos. 

2.  Intakes  at  Newchurch,  Wentwood,  and  Llanvaches, 
from  Castroo:gy  Nant  y  prydd  and  Llanvaches  Brooks,  with 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  221 

a  catchment  area  of  1604  acres,  between  450  and  900 
feet  elevation,  of  which  the  Corporation  own  about  111 
acres.  This  gathering  ground  comprises  654  acres  of  arable 
land  and  hill  pasture  and  950  acres  of  plantations.  There 
is  one  storage  reservoir  at  Wentwood,  Llanvaches. 

The  water  is  filtered,  and  prevention  of  contamination 
on  the  gathering  grounds  is  guarded  against  by  "  constant 
inspection  and  provision  of  drainage." 

The  Corporation  intend  to  extend  their  water  supply  by 
a  new  scheme  in  Brecknockshire,  involving  a  large  reservoir 
at  Pont  Rhyd  y  bine,  2^  miles  from  Talybont,  with  a  catch- 
ment area  of  5510  acres  at  Caerfanell,  situated  between 
650  and  2500  feet  elevation,  none  of  which  is  owned  by 
the  Corporation.  No  Parliamentary  powers  have  been  yet 
obtained. 

Tredegar  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
in  part  from  the  Georgetown  reservoir,  a  mile  east  of  the 
town,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  160  acres,  between  1200 
and  1500  feet  elevation,  and  comprising  60  acres  of  arable 
land,  40  acres  of  hill  pasture,  and  60  acres  of  plantations, 
with  one  farmhouse.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Abertillery  and  District  Joint  Water  Board  obtain  part  of 
their  supply  from  Tillery  Brook,  with  a  catchment  area  of 
600  acres  on  the  Blaentylery  Mountain,  between  1125 
and  1905  feet  elevation,  all  hill  pasture  and  moorland. 
The  Board  own  20  acres.  The  water,  which  is  filtered,  is 
stored  in  the  Cwmtillery  reservoir,  and  was  until  lately 
under  the  control  of  the  Abertillery  Urban  District  Council. 
The  Board  are  now  constructing  the  Grwyne  Fawr  reservoir, 
on  the  Black  Mountain  in  Brecknockshire,  with  a  gathering 
ground  of  2150  acres,  between  1529  and  2660  feet 
elevation,  all  hill  pasture  and  moorland,  without  habitations 
or  farm-steadings. 

Tlie  Bristol  Waterworks  Company  obtain  their  supply 
from  the  Mendip  Hills,  mainly  from  streams,  though  a  part 
is  deiived  from  springs.     The  Yeo  reservoir  on  the  head- 


222  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

waters  of  the  river  Yeo  has  an  immediate  catchment  area 
of  5300  acres,  on  which  are  situated  the  villages  of 
Butcombe,  Nempnett,  Burrington,  Blagdon,  Ubley,  and 
Compton  Martin.  After  treatment  in  septic  tanks,  the 
sewage  from  these  villages  is  discharged  on  land  below  the 
reservoir.  The  gathering  ground  extends  from  the  level  of 
the  reservoir,  110  feet,  to  an  elevation  of  1068  feet  on 
Black  Down.  As  the  Yeo  reservoir  is  too  low  for  the 
water  to  gravitate  to  Bristol,  the  water  is  raised  by  pumps 
into  the  North  Hill  Tunnel,  and  thence  goes  by  gravitation 
into  three  reservoirs  at  Barrow,  where  there  are  filter  beds. 
Another  catchment  area  to  the  eastward,  draining  the  head- 
waters of  the  river  Chew,  is  situated  in  Chewton  Mendip, 
Litton,  East  Harptree,  West  Harptree,  and  Hinton  Blewett, 
and  is  said  to  have  an  extent  of  8320  acres.  Its  reservoirs 
provide  compensation  water.  A  third  catchment  area, 
tapping  the  Ellwell  and  Dundry  streams,  lies  in  Winford, 
Dundry,  and  Barrow  Gurney ;  and  on  it  are  the  three 
Barrow  reservoirs.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  22 
years  varies  from  35"20  inches  at  Barrow  to  42*84  inches 
on  Harptree  Hill.  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain  neither  the 
acreage  owned  by  the  Company  nor  the  proportions  of 
arable  land,  moorland,  and  plantations  on  the  various  gather- 
ing grounds,  a  map  of  which  is  given  in  Proc,  Inst.  Civil 
Engineers,  vol.  194,  p.  424  (1914).  Judging  from  the  map 
of  the  "  Distribution  of  Vegetation  in  Somerset,"  by  C.  E. 
Moss,  in  Geographical  Journal,  October  1906,  the  higher 
parts  of  the  catchment  area,  over  850  feet,  are  heather 
moor  or  heath  pasture,  but  these  are  of  no  great  extent. 
The  greater  part  of  the  gathering  grounds  is  cultivated  land, 
with  some  natural  oak  woods  and  scattered  plantations  of 
conifers. 

Taunton  obtains  its  water  supply  from  three  (Blagdon, 
Leigh,  and  Luxhay)  impounding  reservoirs,  with  a  gathering 
ground  of  700  acres  in  the  Blackdown  Hills,  between  500 
and  900  feet  elevation.  The  area,  of  which  42  acres  are 
owned  by  the  Corporation,  is  made  up  of  100  acres  of  arable 


<r  «x  --5  o 
S   Ui  W^  "--> 


224  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

land,  50  acres  of  moor,  and  550  acres  of  plantations,  with 
two  small  houses  upon  it.  The  water  is  filtered,  but  "  as 
the  gathering  ground  is  not  under  cultivation,  no  measures 
are  necessary  beyond  constant  supervision." 

Stratton  and  Bude  Urban  District  Council  obtain  their 
water  supply  from  the  Tamar  Lake,  supplied  by  overflow 
from  the  river  Tamar  and  two  small  streams.  The  water 
is  filtered.  I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  information 
about  the  gathering  ground. 

South  Molton  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  of  400  acres,  at  about  800  feet  elevation,  on  North 
Molton  Common,  Exmoor.  There  are  no  dwelling-houses, 
farmsteads,  or  plantations  upon  the  area,  of  which  only  three 
acres  are  owned  by  the  Council.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  kept 
from  the  springs  and  rivulets  by  fences.  The  water  is  not 
filtered. 

Exmouth  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  gathering 
grounds,  Squabmoor,  351  acres,  and  Bicton  Common,  290 
acres,  making  a  total  of  641  acres,  situated  between  264 
and  550  feet  elevation,  and  consisting  of  75  acres  of  planta- 
tions, 74  acres  of  pasture  and  arable  land,  and  492  acres 
of  common  land.  These  areas  were  acquired  in  1902  by 
the  Council,  who  "  are  of  opinion  that  no  future  steps 
are  necessary  to  maintain  the  high  state  of  purity  of  the 
water  supply."  The  water,  which  is  stored  in  Squabmoor 
reservoir,  is  filtered,  and  is  reported  by  the  analyst  to  be 
satisfactory  ;  it  acts  on  lead,  but  lead  pipes  are  not  allowed. 
Two  small  additional  areas  of  41  and  35  acres  make  now 
the  total  extent  of  the  gathering  ground  717  acres.  An 
interesting  account  of  the  geological  structure  and  rainfall 
is  given  by  Mr.  S.  Hutton,  in  Proc.  Inst.  Municipal  and 
County  Engineers,  vol.  36,  p.  132  (1910). 

Plymouth  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  river  Meavy 
watershed  on  Dartmoor,  5360  acres  in  extent,  between  750 
and  1650  feet  altitude,  as  follows : 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS      225 

Between  1500  and  1650  feet  altitude  .  .         84  acres. 

1250    ,,    1500    ,,          „  .  .  1550    ,, 

1000    „    1250    „          ,,  .  .  2164    „ 

750    ,,    1000    „          „  .  .  1562    „ 


Total         .     5360  acres. 

Practically  the  whole  of  the  area  is  rough  moorland 
grazing,  with  a  few  enclosed  meadow  and  pasture  lands,  and 
27  acres  of  woodland.  The  Town  Council  have  purchased 
outright  nearly  the  v/hole  of  the  watershed,  and  have  planted 
about  100,000  larch  at  different  periods  during  the  last 
twenty  years.  This  planting  has  been  only  partially  success- 
ful, owing  to  the  rabbit  pest.  The  Town  Council  are  con- 
templating a  scheme  of  afforestation  after  the  war,  and  are 
being  advised  by  Prof.  Pritchard  on  the  matter. 

The  Plymouth  waterworks  date  from  1590,  when  Sir 
Francis  Drake  cut  the  open  channel  from  Dartmoor  to 
Plymouth,  now  known  as  the  '  leat,'  which  conveyed  the 
water  supply  for  300  years.  From  1875  onwards  the 
supply  often  ran  short,  owing  to  leakage  from  the  leat,  to 
the  great  increase  of  population,  and  to  other  causes.  This 
led  to  the  building  of  the  Burrator  reservoir  and  the  con- 
veyance of  the  water  by  pipes  in  1898.  The  growing  in- 
adequacy of  the  water  supply  was  not  due,  as  has  been 
stated,  to  the  deforestation  of  Dartmoor  in  the  last  300 
years.  There  is  no  evidence  of  the  existence  of  woods  in  the 
Meavy  drainage  area  in  historic  times.  The  watershed  is 
very  remarkable  for  its  yield  of  water,  which  is  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  watershed  in  Britain,  The  whole  of  the 
catchment  area,  except  90  acres,  is  on  granite,  in  which 
there  are  large  fissures ;  and  overlying  the  rock  there  are 
large  tracts  of  peaty  moorland.  The  rainfall  is  about  5  8  to 
60  inches  annually.  During  wet  weather  the  peat  absorbs 
an  immense  quantity  of  water,  which  is  stored  up  in  various 
parts  of  the  watershed  in  deposits  of  decomposed  granite, 
that  are  in  some  places  over  100  feet  in  thickness.  This 
water  is  yielded  pure  and  abundant  in  summer,  when  the 
flow  of  the  stream  is  very  much  larger  than  on  watersheds, 
where  the  geological  formation  is  more  or  less  impervious 

Q 


226  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

to  water.  Disastrous  floods  of  the  Meavy  river  are  also 
rare.  This  watershed  is  an  exceptional  case,  where,  without 
any  forest  cover,  most  of  the  rainfall  is  stored  up,  and  little 
of  the  water  passes  away  as  '  run-off.* 

Mr.  J.  Paton,  Borough  Engineer,  in  a  discussion  on  pure 
water  supply  held  at  a  meeting  of  the  Institute  of  Municipal 
and  County  Engineers  in  1911,  comparing  the  gathering 
ground  of  Plymouth,  owned  by  the  Corporation,  with  that 
of  Devonport,  not  similarly  owned,  says  :  "  The  water  supply 
of  Plymouth  is  not  filtered.  The  source  of  supply  is  above 
suspicion,  and  there  is  no  necessity  to  filter.  The  typhoid 
rate  for  many  years  has  been  the  lowest  in  the  country. 
Devonport  has  a  gathering  ground  in  another  valley,  with 
a  great  deal  of  peat ;  and  the  stream  comes  through  one  or 
two  very  questionable  districts,  where  it  might  be  liable  to 
pollution  from  farm  buildings,  which  the  Plymouth  supply 
is  free  from.  There  they  do  not  filter,  as  they  find  it  very 
expensive  work,  because  the  sand  washing  amounts  to  a 
very  large  sum  yearly.  Sand  filtering  does  not  make  them 
any  more  immune  from  typhoid  or  an  epidemic  than  if  they 
had  left  it  alone." 

The  Plymouth  Waterworks  are  described  by  E.  Sandeman, 
in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  146,  pp.  2-42,  with  map 
(1901);  and  by  F.  Howarth,  in  Proc.  Inc.  Assoc.  Municipal 
and  County  Engineers,  vol.  37,  pp.  95-112,  with  map  (1911), 
and  in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  194,  p.  97,  with 
map  (1914). 

Devonport  obtains  its  water  supply,  which  is  now  under 
the  control  of  the  Plymouth  Corporation,  from  the  West 
Dart  river  (1539  acres)  and  its  tributaries,  the  Cowsic 
(1524  acres)  and  Blackabrook  (1653  acres)  rivers.  The 
total  catchment  area  comprises  4716  acres,  of  which  3297 
acres  are  above  1500  feet,  and  1419  acres  lie  between 
1000  and  1500  feet.  The  area  is  rough  moorland  grazing, 
without  any  plantations  of  trees,  and  is  not  owned  by  the 
Corporation,  who  have,  however,  rights  under  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment to  abstract  the  water  at  definite  points  and  divert  it. 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS      227 

A  weir  built  across  the  main  stream  diverts  the  water  into 
a  leat  or  open  conduit,  which  crosses  the  moor  for  many 
miles.  The  water  is  filtered.  See  Journ.  Roy.  Sanitary 
Inst,  xxxiv.  (1913). 

Ivybridge  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  new  reservoir 
on  Harford  Moor,  Dartmoor,  with  a  gathering  ground  of 
414  acres,  at  854  to  1200  feet  elevation,  all  rough  moor- 
land and  common  lands.  The  Urban  District  Council  own 
only  the  site  of  the  reservoir  and  land  adjoining,  which  is 
enclosed,  about  8  acres.  The  Council  have  powers  to  enter 
into  agreement  with  owners,  lessees,  and  occupiers  of  any 
lands  within  the  gathering  ground  for  the  execution  of  such 
works  as  may  be  necessary  for  draining  such  lands,  or  for 
more  effectually  preserving  the  purity  of  and  collecting  the 
water.  It  has  not  been  found  necessary  to  make  any 
arrangements  as  to  surface  occupation. 

Torquay   obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Trenchford 

and  Blackingstone  valleys  on  an  outlying  spur  of  Dartmoor 
on  the  eastern  side  between  the  Wrey  Brook  and  the  river 
Teign.  The  catchment  area  comprises  2331  acres,  at  718 
to  1135  feet  elevation,  as  follows  : 

Plantations     ........  284  acres. 

Farm  lands  (let)       .......  484 

Arable  land  allowed  to  run  waste       ....  559 

Moorland  and  brake  ......  799 

Roads 93 

Kennick,  Tottiford,  and  Trenchford  reservoirs    .         .  112 

Total         .     2331  acres. 

The  whole  area  is  owned  by  the  Corporation.  Originally 
there  were  19  dwelling-houses  and  a  population  of  119 
persons  upon  it ;  but  all  dwellings  and  farm  buildings  have 
been  pulled  down;  and  the  greater  part  of  the  land  is  unused, 
even  for  grazing,  559  acres  being  arable  land  allowed  to 
run  to  waste,  while  799  acres  are  moorland. 

The  section  of  484  acres  which  is  let  as  a  farm  is  under 
severe  restrictions,  viz. :  (1)  The  house  and  farm  buildings 
lie  off  the  catchment  area,  and  drain  towards  Wrey  Brook. 


228  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

(2)  All  streams  are  strongly  fenced  off,  and  springs  are 
carried  in  pipes  underground  so  that  no  water  lies  on  the 
surface.  (3)  The  grazing  of  cattle  and  sheep  is  confined  to 
certain  areas.  {4)  The  use  of  manure  is  limited  to  certain 
areas,  and  certain  kinds  of  manure  are  prohibited. 

Of  the  284  acres  of  plantations,  183  acres  were  planted 
in  the  years  1899  to  1916.  Mr.  S.  C.  Chapman,  C.E.,  the 
able  engineer  in  charge,  has  sent  me  a  plan  of  the  catchment 
area,  which  shows  that  the  plantations  are  being  made  on 
the  slopes  round  the  reservoirs.  If  the  flat  lands  beyond 
are  ever  again  occupied  for  grazing  purposes,  the  wide  belt 
of  trees  will  form  a  protective  barrier.  It  is  the  rule  to 
purchase  1-  to  2 -year-old  seedling  trees,  which  are  placed 
in  nurseries  till  old  enough  to  plant  out.  The  planta- 
tions have  been  successful.  See  Journ.  Roy.  Sanitary  Inst. 
xxxi.  (1910). 

The  Report  of  the  Development  Commissioners  for  1912- 
1913  mentions  "  the  application  of  the  Torquay  Town 
Council,  on  which  they  have  agreed  to  approve  a  scheme 
that  would  ultimately  provide  for  the  planting  of  about 
10,000  acres  on  Dartmoor."  This  scheme  apparently  never 
was  proceeded  with. 

Okehampton  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  gathering 
grounds  on  Dartmoor :  (1)  from  an  intake  on  the  Redaven 
stream  at  Yes  Tor,  with  a  catchment  area  of  560  acres, 
without  any  dwelling-houses  or  farmsteads;  and  (2)  a 
gathering  ground  from  springs,  of  100  acres  in  Western 
Park,  on  which  there  are  two  dwelling-houses  and  farm- 
steads. The  Town  Council  own  no  part  of  the  gathering 
grounds,  which  are  entirely  hill  pasture  and  moorland. 
The  water  from  Yes  Tor  area  passes  through  filter  beds. 

Paignton  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  the  Holne  or  Venford  reservoir,  on  Holne  Moor,  Dart- 
moor, which  impounds  the  Venford  Brook,  a  tributary  of  the 
river  Dart.  It  is  a  mile  north-west  of  Holne,  the  birth- 
place of  Charles  Kingsley.  The  Town  Council  "  wisely 
followed    the    admirable    precedent    set    by    Torquay,   and 


WATEE  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  229 

purchased  the  catchment  area,  740  acres  of  moorland, 
between  936  and  1590  feet  elevation,  without  a  habitation 
of  any  sort  upon  it.  Commoners'  rights  were  extinguished 
in  respect  of  the  land  covered  by  the  reservoir,  and  of  60 
acres  additional  alongside  the  reservoir,  which  were  fenced 
in  to  prevent  direct  pollution  from  cattle,  etc.  Owing  to 
large  patches  of  soft,  peaty  soil,  the  water  at  times  has  an 
acid  reaction,  and  is  therefore  liable  to  act  on  lead."  Appro- 
priate filtration  neutralises  the  acidity ;  and  Paignton,  a 
health  resort  with  numerous  summer  visitors,  enjoys  an 
abundant  pure  moorland  water  supply,  the  cost  of  which 
amounted  to  £119,000,  No  planting  has  been  done  on 
the  catchment  area ;  but  some  larch,  spruce,  and  Scots  pine 
have  been  planted  below  the  reservoir,  which  are  doing  well 
in  shelter. 

Falmouth  Waterworks  Company  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  a  gathering  ground  of  1858  acres,  situated  between 
200  and  600  feet  elevation,  about  2^  miles  from  the 
town.  It  consists,  with  the  exception  of  200  acres  of 
moor,  of  arable  land  and  pasture,  on  which  there  are  a  few 
small  farms  and  cottages.  The  Company  has  no  control 
over  the  area,  but  has  rights  of  inspection,  which  is 
regularly  carried  out  by  the  Company  and  the  Sanitary 
Inspector  of  the  District.  The  water  is  filtered.  There 
appear  to  be  no  plantations  on  the  area,  which  might  be 
afforested  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  water. 

St.  Ives  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  the  New 
Bussow  reservoir,  with  a  gathering  ground  on  Bussow  Moors, 
of  360  acres,  between  400  and  800  feet  elevation,  none  of 
which  is  owned  by  the  town.  The  area  consists  of  260 
acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moorland  and  100  acres  of  arable 
land,  with  several  habitations  and  farmsteads,  the  drainage 
from  which  is  conducted  away  from  the  streams  leading  to 
the  reservoir.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Penzance  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  a  stream 
gathering  ground  of  800  acres  at  Madron,  between  300  and 


230  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

700  feet  elevation,  the  whole  of  which  is  leased  to  the 
Town  Council.  It  comprises  400  acres  of  arable  land, 
with  six  farm-steadings,  300  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor, 
and  100  acres  of  plantations.  The  water  is  passed  through 
three  separate  layers  of  coke  in  the  leats,  and  then  in  the 
Boscathnoe  reservoirs  it  passes  through  a  final  filter  into  the 
service  mains.  Another  part  of  the  supply  comes  from  an 
underground  watershed  of  1000  acres ;  and  during  the 
summer  the  supply  is  augmented  by  pumping  from  a  deep 
well  and  adits.  See  Trans.  Inst.  Water  Engineers,  ix. 
(1904). 

VIII.  Wales 

Thirty-four  local  authorities  and  five  private  companies 
obtain  their  water  supply  from  gathering  grounds  aggregat- 
ing 147,909  acres,  of  which  42,273  acres  are  owned  by 
eighteen  Corporations.  The  most  important  areas  owned  by 
local  authorities  are  those  of  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Birken- 
head, and  Cardiff.  Excellent  schemes  of  aftbrestation  are 
being  carried  out  on  the  Vyrnwy  area  by  the  Liverpool 
Corporation,  and  on  the  Elan  area  by  the  Birmingham 
Corporation,  Cardiff  has  only  planted  a  few  acres.  A 
considerable  amount  of  purchasable  planting  land  exists  on 
the  Merthyr  Tydfil  area,  but  as  this  is  not  owned  by  the 
Corporation  it  is  doubtful  if  any  afforestation  scheme  will  be 
considered.  Large  areas  owned  by  Llandudno  and  Colwyn 
are  too  elevated  to  carry  trees.  In  most  of  the  gathering 
grounds  in  Wales,  plantations  on  a  small  scale  around 
reservoirs  are  possible. 

The  new  gathering  ground  of  Abertillery  (see  p.  221) — 
2150  acres  in  Brecknockshire — is  included  in  the  total  of 
147,909  acres  for  Wales.  The  Newport  (Mon.)  proposed, 
but  not  yet  sanctioned,  area  of  5510  acres  in  Brecknock- 
shire is  not  included  in  this  total. 

Holyhead  Waterworks  Company  obtain  their  supply 
in  part  from  Llyn  Traffwll,  a  lake  6  miles  distant, 
with   a   gathering  ground   of  952   acres,  situated  between 


Fig.  41. — Wales  Catchment  Areas. 


232  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

25  and  52  feet  elevation.  The  Company  own  only  a 
small  strip  on  the  margin  of  the  lake  and  the  site  of  the 
pumping  and  filtration  works.  Both  mechanical  and  sand 
filters  are  used. 

Carnarvon  obtains  its  water  supply  from  an  intake  at 
Nant  Mill,  half  a  mile  below  Quellyn  Lake,  with  a  gather- 
ing ground  of  about  5120  acres,  between  453  and  3500 
feet  elevation  (Snowdon).  The  Corporation  own  only  the 
site  of  the  intake.  The  land,  on  which  there  are  no  planta- 
tions, is  entirely  hill  pasture,  except  a  very  small  amount  of 
arable  land.  The  scavenging  of  the  village  of  Ehyd-ddu 
on  the  area,  which  has  a  considerable  population  (200 
persons),  is  carried  out  under  the  supervision  of  the  Ehyd- 
ddu  Joint  Sanitary  Committee  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Local  Government  Board. 

Bangor  obtains  its  water  supply  from  an  intake  on  the 
river  Llafar  in  Llanllechid,  at  1300  feet  elevation,  with  a 
catchment  area  of  1100  acres,  extending  up  to  Carnedd 
Llewellyn,  3484  feet  elevation.  The  gathering  ground, 
which  is  not  owned  by  the  Corporation,  is  without  planta- 
tions, habitations,  or  farmsteads,  and  is  used  only  for  sheep 
grazing.     The  water  is  not  filtered. 

Llanfairfechan  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  a  storage  reservoir  at  Camarnaint,  with  an 
intake  from  the  Glan  y  Sais  stream,  and  a  gathering  ground 
of  393  acres,  between  1100  and  2000  feet  elevation.  The 
area,  which  is  common  land  belonging  to  the  Crown,  is 
entirely  hill  pasture,  used  for  grazing  sheep  and  ponies 
only,  and  is  without  plantations.  The  water  is  not  filtered. 
When  sheep  or  ponies  die  on  the  gathering  ground  they  are 
immediately  buried. 

Penmaenmawr  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  an  upland  surface  at  Tan  y  Fan,  reported 
in  Jmirn.  Board  of  Agriculture,  xi.  471  (1904),  to  be 
832  acres  of  hill  pasture,  between  1000  and  2000  feet  eleva- 
tion, all  owned  by  the  Council.     The  water  is  not  filtered. 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  233 

Conway  and  Colwyn  Bay  Joint  Water  Board  obtain  their 
supply  from  Lake  Cowlyd,  4  miles  from  Llanrwst,  with  a 
gathering  ground  of  1100  acres,  between  1169  and  2621 
feet  elevation.  The  highest  points  on  the  gathering  ground 
are  Pen  Llithrig-y-wrach  (2621  feet)  and  Cregiau  Gleision 
(2213  feet).  The  area,  which  is  owned  by  the  Board, 
includes  200  acres  of  lake  and  900  acres  of  moorland,  and 
is  without  habitations,  farmsteads,  or  plantations.  The 
water  is  passed  through  copper  screens,  but  is  not  filtered ; 
and  precautions  against  contamination  on  the  gathering 
ground  are  considered  unnecessary.  The  annual  rainfall 
from  1891  to  1906  varied  between  58-50  and  114*30 
inches,  the  average  being  76-61  inches.  The  catchment 
area  was  purchased  to  do  away  with  a  farmstead  that  was. 
on  it,  and  to  give  the  Board  full  control.  It  is  now  only 
used  as  a  sheep-walk,  and  owing  to  its  elevation  and 
distance  very  few  visitors  find  their  way  up  there.  See 
T.  B.  Farrington,  in  Proc.  Inst.  MiinicijMl  and  County 
Engineers,  vol.  33,  pp.  200-207  (1907). 

Llandudno  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  Lake  Dulyn,  at  1747  feet  elevation,  and  Lake 
Melynllyn,  at  2094  feet  elevation.  The  united  gathering 
grounds,  710  acres  in  extent,  are  entirely  moorland  at  a 
very  high  altitude,  and  together  with  730  acres  adjoining 
(1430  acres  in  all),  are  owned  by  the  Council.  An  experi- 
mental plantation  of  half  an  acre  has  been  made  at  1650 
feet  elevation.  The  water  is  not  filtered,  but  the  gathering 
ground  is  frequently  patrolled,  twice  a  week  in  summer, 
and  once  a  week  in  winter. 

Rhyl  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  a  gathering  ground  of  9  0  0  acres  at  Llanefy dd,  between 
485  and  1000  feet  elevation,  of  which  50  acres  are  owned 
by  the  Council.  The  area  comprises  100  acres  of  planta- 
tions, 200  acres  of  hill  pasture,  and  600  acres  of  arable 
land,  with  small  farms  upon  it.  The  water  is  filtered ;  and 
on  the  gathering  ground,  the  farms,  which  have  intercepting 
tanks,   and   the    streams    are    inspected,   and    excreta    are 


234  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

removed.  This  catchment  area  could  probably  be  afforested 
with  profit,  and  in  any  case  ought  to  be  owned  by  the  Council. 

The  Wrexham  and  East  Denbighshire  Water    Company 

obtain  their  supply  in  part  from  the  Pentrebychan  Brook, 
with  a  gathering  ground  of  1500  acres,  on  the  Esclusham 
Mountain,  between  900  and  1500  feet  elevation.  The 
ground,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Company,  is  all 
barren  moorland  on  millstone  grit  and  limestone,  without 
houses  or  farmsteads.  There  is  said  to  be  no  possible 
contamination.  The  water  is  first  settled  in  an  impounding 
reservoir  at  Cae  Llwyd,  Esclusham  Above,  then  decanted 
into  the  Ty  Mawr  reservoir  and  finally  filtered  through 
slow  sand  filters. 

Birkenhead  obtains  its  water  supply  at  present  from 
wells  and  borings  in  the  New  Eed  Sandstone  formation ; 
but  an  additional  source  of  supply  from  a  gathering  ground 
of  6300  acres  on  the  head- waters  of  the  river  Alwen  in 
Denbighshire  was  authorised  by  the  Birkenhead  Corporation 
Water  Act  of  1907;  and  the  necessary  works,  including 
reservoir,  mechanical  filters  and  tanks,  are  now  being  con- 
structed. The  Alwen  catchment  area  is  situated  between 
1190  and  1760  feet  elevation,  and  consists  mainly  of 
moorland,  more  or  less  covered  with  peat,  which  varies  in 
depth  from  a  few  inches  to  many  feet.  Below  the  peat  on 
the  south  and  west  is  generally  boulder  clay;  elsewhere  rock 
and  shale  prevail.  About  550  acres  only  may  be  classed 
as  arable  and  grass  land,  there  being  a  little  cultivation  on 
the  north  and  east  sides  of  the  watershed,  and  about 
100  acres  of  woods  and  plantations  on  the  north-east  side 
of  the  valley.  There  are  eleven  houses  and  farmsteads  on 
the  gathering  ground,  five  of  which  belong  to  the  Corpora- 
tion ;  and  of  the  latter,  two  near  the  margin  of  the  reservoir 
will  probably  remain  uninhabited. 

The  Corporation  own  2600  acres,  including  some  land 
below  the  reservoir,  that  drains  to  the  river  Alwen.  Of 
this  area,  about  375  acres  are  covered  with  the  water  of 
the    reservoir.      Prof    Eraser    Story    estimates    that    about 


WATEE  CATCHMENT  AREAS  235 

600  acres  of  the  Alwen  area  might  be  profitably  afforested. 
The  afforestable  area  faces  north  and  east,  excellent  shelter 
being  afforded  by  a  ridge  which  runs  parallel  to  the  lake. 
The  range  of  hills,  composed  of  Craig-yr-Tycheu,  Ten-y- 
bwlch,  Mwdvvleithin  and  Pen-bwlchygarnedd,  is  situated 
immediately  to  windward.  The  sheltered  situation  counter- 
acts to  a  great  extent  the  influence  of  the  high  elevation, 
1200  to  1500  feet.  Many  parts,  chiefly  near  the  sources 
of  small  streams  and  in  the  hollows,  covered  with  accumula- 
tions of  peat,  must  be  excluded  from  any  scheme  of 
afforestation.  The  area  previously  occupied  by  Llyn 
Dauychain,  in  which  the  peat  from  the  bottom  of  the 
reservoir  was  deposited,  and  some  swampy  land,  must  also 
be  excluded.  The  soil  is  suitable  for  the  growth  of  spruce, 
especially  Sitka  spruce ;  and  some  of  the  lower  slopes  might 
be  advantageously  planted  with  Douglas  fir.  About  75  per 
cent  of  the  west  side  could  produce  timber  profitably.  The 
cost  of  planting,  including  young  trees,  drainage,  and 
ordinary  fencing,  was  estimated  in  1915  at  £6  per  acre. 
The  annual  rainfall  was  about  46  inches  in  1911,  1912, 
and  1913,  and  55-12  inches  in  1914. 

The  Corporation  have  authority  to  construct  another 
reservoir  in  the  Brenig  Valley  in  Denbighshire,  having  a 
separate  gathering  ground  adjacent  to  the  Alwen  watershed, 
5600  acres  in  extent,  and  situated  between  1067  and 
1700  feet  altitude.  This  catchment  area,  of  which  the 
Corporation  own  about  4400  acres,  will  not  be  utilised  at 
present  for  water  supply ;  and  no  report  as  regards  its 
suitability  for  afforestation  has  yet  been  made. 

Brymbo  Water  Company  obtain  their  supply  from  three 
upland  surfaces,  686  acres  and  873  acres  at  Llandegla,  and 
42  acres  at  Llanarmon,  making  a  total  of  1601  acres.  I 
have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  particulars  of  these  gather- 
ing grounds,  which  appear  to  be  mainly  moorland  and  hill 
pasture.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Ruabon  Water  Company  obtain  their  supply  from  an 
intake  of  the  Trefeehan  Brook  on   the  Ruabon  Mountain, 


236  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

west  of  tlie  village  of  Pen  y  Cae,  with  a  gathering  ground 
of  1565  acres.  I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any 
particulars  of  this  area,  which  appears  to  be  all  moorland 
and  hill  pasture.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Oswestry  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Penygwely 
reservoir,  5^  miles  distant  and  near  Llansilin  in  Denbigh- 
shire, with  a  gathering  ground  of  455  acres,  at  1100  to 
1467  feet  elevation,  consisting  mainly  of  hill  pasture  and 
sheep-run  without  any  habitations.  The  Town  Council  in 
1904  purchased  the  farm  of  250  acres  on  which  the 
impounding  reservoir  is  situated  and  which  comprises  the 
greater  part  of  the  watershed.  It  includes  30  acres  of 
arable  land ;  but  there  is  little  or  no  danger  of  contamina- 
tion. The  water  is  not  filtered,  but  is  of  good  quality. 
There  are  no  trees  on  the  area ;  but  in  the  adjoining  water- 
shed to  the  north  there  are  large  plantations  ranging  in 
elevation  from  1000  to  1380  feet  and  from  1400  to 
1470  feet.  The  annual  rainfall  at  the  reservoir  averages 
40  inches.  The  Borough  Surveyor,  Mr.  G.  W.  Lacey,  is  of 
opinion  that  in  general  the  control  of  the  catchment  area 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Water  Authority. 

Hawarden  and  District  Waterworks  Company  obtain  their 
supply  from  four  storage  reservoirs  at  Cilcain,  with  a 
gathering  ground  on  the  Garth  Stream,  Moel  Famma,  of 
1400  acres,  between  750  and  1640  feet  elevation.  The 
area,  which  is  entirely  hill  pasture  and  moor,  is  not  owned 
by  the  Company.  The  water  is  filtered ;  and  no  special 
precautions  against  contamination  are  considered  necessary. 

Towyn  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  (1)  Rhydyronen  Brook,  with  a  gathering  ground  of 
215  acres,  comprising  179  acres  of  hill  pasture,  30  acres 
of  arable  land,  and  6  acres  of  plantations;  and  (2)  Bwlchgwyn, 
springs  and  gathering  ground  of  57  acres,  comprising 
47  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  10  acres  of  arable  land.  In 
Journ.  Board  of  Agriculture,  xi.  471  (1904),  217  acres  are 
said  to  be  owned  by  the  Council. 


WATEE  CATCHMENT  AREAS      237 

Vyrnwy  catchment  area,  22,742  acres,  supplying  Liver- 
pool, and  with  a  good  scheme  of  afforestation,  is  fully 
described  on  pp.  88-94. 

Machynlleth  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  Esgeireira  reservoir,  Llanwrin,  with  a  gathering 
ground  of  271  acres,  reported  in  Journ.  Board  of  Agriculture, 
xi.  471  (1904),  to  be  owned  by  the  Council,  and  to  com- 
prise 204  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  67  acres  of  woodland. 
The  Clerk  states  in  a  letter  that  only  2>\  acres  are  owned 
by  the  Council. 

Llanidloes  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  of  260  acres  at  Llangurig,  all  hill  pasture  and 
moorland.  None  of  it  is  owned  by  the  Town  Council. 
The  water  is  filtered,  but  no  other  precautions  are  taken 
against  contamination. 

Newtown  and  Llanllwchaiarn  Urban  District  Council  obtain 
their  water  supply  from  Mochdre  reservoir,  with  a  gathering 
ground  of  1821  acres,  between  662  and  1391  feet  elevation, 
in  Mochdre  and  Kerry.  The  total  area,  of  which  only  10 
acres  are  owned  by  the  Council,  comprises  334  acres  of 
arable  land,  1377  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  and  110 
acres  of  plantations.  There  are  17  farm-steadings  on  the 
gathering  ground,  and  a  careful  inspection  is  made  monthly 
of  each  farm.  Cesspools  are  provided  to  prevent  the  sewage 
getting  into  the  intake  stream ;  and  no  flood  water  is  taken 
into  the  reservoir.  This  area  would  seem  to  be  suitable  for 
an  afforestation  scheme,  which  would  do  away  with  the 
arable  land  and  farm-steadings,  and  prevent  possible 
contamination. 

Aberystwyth  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Llyn  Llygad 
Eheidol,  a  small  lake  or  tarn  just  below  the  summit  of 
Plynlimmon,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  133  acres,  between 
1665  and  2468  feet  elevation,  all  moorland  without  any 
habitations,  and  not  owned  by  the  Town  Council.  There  is 
no  filtration. 


238  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Elan  and  Claerwen  area,  45,562  acres,  supplying  Bir- 
mingham, and  with  a  good  afforestation  scheme,  is  fully 
described  on  pp.  101-104. 

Milford  Haven  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  three  reservoirs  at  Fordway,  with  a  gathering 
ground  of  about  200  acres,  between  92  and  190  feet  eleva- 
tion. This  area  is  leased  by  the  Council,  and  comprises 
40  acres  of  arable  land,  155  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor, 
and  5  acres  of  plantations.  There  are  some  habitations  and 
farm-steadings  on  the  gathering  ground ;  and  to  deal  with 
the  contamination  from  these,  a  system  of  drainage  with 
cesspits  and  small  filters  was  adopted,  which  is  reported 
to  be  satisfactory. 

Llanelly  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  gathering 
grounds  with  a  total  extent  of  4398  acres  : 

1.  Lliedi  Valley,  with  two  reservoirs,  4048  acres,  be- 
tween 200  and  950  feet  elevation,  comprising  400  acres  of 
arable  land,  3000  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  and  648 
acres  of  plantations. 

2.  Cwm  Trebeddrod,  with  one  reservoir,  350  acres, 
between  200  and  550  feet  elevation,  comprising  50  acres 
of  arable  land,  250  acres  of  hill  pasture,  and  50  acres  of 
plantations. 

On  the  Lliedi  area,  there  are  509  inhabitants  and  102 
dwelling-houses  and  farmsteads ;  and  the  Corporation  own 
only  100  acres  in  all.  On  the  Cwm  Trebeddrod  area  there 
are  50  inhabitants  and  10  dwelling-houses  and  farmsteads, 
and  the  Council  own  only  15  acres. 

The  risk  of  contamination  would  appear  to  be  great,  but 
stringent  bye-laws  for  the  prevention  of  pollution  have  been 
made  under  section  25  of  the  Llanelly  Waterworks  Act, 
1909.  "  The  gathering  ground  is  inspected,  and  all  sanitary 
arrangements  in  the  houses  on  the  area  are  kept  under 
supervision.  The  farmyards  are  drained  on  to  adjoining 
lands  and  the  watercourses  are  kept  clear."  The  bye-laws 
provide  that  sanitary  arrangements  shall  be  made  by  owners 
and  occupiers  of  lands  on  the  drainage  area.     No  pigs  may 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  239 

be  kept.      The  grazing  of  cattle  is  not  allowed  within   100 
yards  of  the  streams.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Cardiff  obtains  its  supply  of  domestic  water  at  present 
from  a  gathering  ground  of  4000  acres,  at  the  head  of  the 
Taff  Fawr  Eiver  in  Brecknockshire.  There  are  two  reservoirs, 
Beacons  reservoir  at  1340  feet  and  Cantreff  reservoir  at 
1073  feet  elevation,  the  highest  point  on  the  area  being 
Brecon  Beacons,  2910  feet.  The  Council  have  purchased 
728  acres  of  this  area,  and  have  planted  25  acres  with  trees 
vip  to  February  1918.  "Prof.  Fraser  Story  advised  the 
Council  regarding  afforestation  ;  and  a  deputation  was  sent 
to  interview  the  Development  Commissioners,  but  little  help 
or  encouragement  was  given  at  the  time."  Upon  the  parts 
privately  owned,  there  are  no  buildings  except  a  house 
belonging  to  the  Corporation,  and  steps  are  taken  to  prevent 
any  contamination.  Adjacent  to  the  preceding  gathering 
ground  is  the  lower  catchment  area  of  Taff  Fawr,  on  which 
the  Llwynon  reservoir  is  being  built  at  8  5  0  feet  elevation ; 
but  the  work  of  construction  was  stopped  in  November  1915. 
This  area  comprises  6000  acres,  between  850  and  2000 
feet  elevation,  and  of  it  1248  acres  are  owned  by  the 
Corporation.  The  average  rainfall  varies  from  7  6 "9  6  inches 
at  the  Beacons  reservoir  to  60*31  inches  at  the  Llwynon 
reservoir.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Cardiff  has  also  another  gathering  ground",  with  two 
reservoirs  at  Llanishen  and  Lisvane,  about  four  miles  north 
of  the  city,  comprising  2000  acres  mainly  over  limestone, 
mostly  arable  land  with  some  pasture  and  woods,  extending 
on  the  north  to  the  Caerphilly  hills  and  on  the  east  to  Cefn 
Mably  Park.  Recently  considerable  building  has  taken 
place  of  a  suburban  character.  The  Corporation  own  no 
part  of  this  area,  the  water  of  which  has  not  been  utilised 
for  domestic  purposes  for  many  years  past.  Owing  to  the 
non-completion  of  the  Llwynon  reservoir,  the  Lisvane  gather- 
ing ground  may  shortly  be  used  to  supplement  the  water 
from  the  Taff  Fawr  ;  and  this  would  entail  steps  being  taken 
to  prevent  contamination  of  the  water  of  the  several  streams. 


240  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Merthyr  Tydfll  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  of  8350  acres  in  Brecknockshire,  comprising  the 
area  draining  to  the  river  Taf  Fechan  from  the  Brecon 
Beacons  southwards  to  Pontsticill,  where  the  Taf  Fechan 
reservoir  is  now  being  constructed  across  the  river  valley. 
The  area  lies  between  1082  and  2906  feet  elevation.  The 
area  owned  as  freehold  by  the  Corporation  is  623  acres, 
of  which  420|-  acres  are  under  water,  while  202|-  acres 
are  enclosed  land  around  the  margins  of  the  reservoirs, 
viz. : 

Upper  Neuadd  Reservoir  .  1509  feet  elevation,     18     acres  moorland. 

Lower  Neviadd  Reservoir  .  1413    ,,  ,,  31|    ,,  ,, 

Pentwyn  Reservoir  .  1087    ,,  ,,  26^    ,,       pasture 

Taf  Fechan  Reservoir  .  1082    ,,  ,,  1261     ,, 

Around  the  three  first  reservoirs  the  Corporation  have 
planted  70  acres;  and  "conifer  plantations  and  quickset 
hedges  have  proved  successful  at  an  elevation  of  1500  feet, 
which  does  not  appear  to  be  the  limiting  altitude  for  suc- 
cessful afforestation." 

In  a  report,  dated  26  th  August  1914,  Mr.  T.  Harvey, 
M.Inst. C.E.,  states  that  "of  the  total  area,  more  than  6000 
acres  are  mountain  moorland,  mostly  commonable  lands, 
the  greater  part  of  which  is  on  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  and 
eminently  adapted  for  a  scheme  of  afforestation.  About 
1500  acres  in  the  Taf  Fechan  Valley,  adjoining  the  reser- 
voir lands,  are  enclosed  lands,  cultivated  by  various  land- 
owners, who  use  the  6000  acres  of  mountain  moorland  within 
the  catchment  area  for  sheep-runs  and  for  cattle  grazing. 
A  proportion  of  the  mountain  land,  perhaps  1000  acres  or 
more,  could  with  advantage  be  enclosed  and  planted  in  a 
series  of  belts,  leaving  the  intervening  spaces  for  sheep 
grazing ;  and  after  a  period  of  years  the  trees  would  afford 
shelter.  The  subsoil  over  a  large  portion  of  the  6000  acres 
is  of  a  considerable  depth,  but  near  the  summit  of  the  hills 
the  rock  crops  out  in  escarpments  and  on  the  surface.  At 
Blaentaf  Farm,  nearly  1400  feet  above  sea-level,  large  and 
well-grown  ash  trees  and  sycamores  may  be  seen.  In  my 
opinion,  the   afforestation  of  the  moorland,  comprising  the 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  241 

larger  part  of  the  catchment  area,  would  prove  advantageous 
in  every  respect  and  ultimately  profitable." 

The  catchment  area  was  subsequently  reported  upon  by 
Mr.  H.  A.  Pritchard,  Adviser  in  Forestry,  who  spent  some 
days  in  a  detailed  examination  of  the  ground  ;  but  whether 
any  steps  will  be  taken  for  its  afforestation  after  the  war, 
in  the  absence  of  ownership  by  the  Corporation,  is  un- 
certain. 

The  population  on  the  gathering  ground,  which  contains 
no  arable  land,  is  very  small ;  and  the  only  measure  taken 
against  possible  contamination  has  been  the  carrying  out  of 
some  drainage  to  farms  near  Pentwyn  reservoir.  The  water 
is  filtered.  The  rainfall  on  the  catchment  area  is  high, 
ranging  from  44  to  72  inches  at  Pentwyn  reservoir.  For 
further  particulars  see  Mr.  T.  F.  Harvey,  in  Proc.  Inc.  Assoc. 
Municipal  and  County  Engineers,  vol.  26,  pp.  46-49,  with 
map  and  plans  (1900). 

Neath  Rural  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  Ystradfellte  reservoir  on  the  river  Dringarth  in 
Brecknockshire,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  2250  acres, 
between  1204  and  2000  feet  elevation,  all  hill  pasture  and 
moor,  without  habitations  or  farm-steadings.  The  Council 
owns  85  acres  only.  The  water  is  not  filtered,  but  care- 
takers make  daily  inspection  of  all  sources  of  supply. 

Ebbw  Vale  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  the  Llangynidr  and  Carno  reservoirs,  on  the 
river  Ebbw,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  1530  acres  on  the 
Llangynidr  mountain  in  Brecknockshire,  between  1356  and 
1771  feet  elevation.  The  area,  none  of  which  is  owned 
by  the  Council,  is  all  hill  pasture  and  moorland,  without 
habitations,  farm-steadings,  or  plantations.  The  water  is 
filtered,  but  no  special  precautions  are  taken  against  con- 
tamination on  the  gathering  ground.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  is  60  inches. 

Brynmawr  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from   a  gathering  ground  of  200  acres  on  Cirn  Mountain 


242  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

(Brecknockshire),  a  mile  north  of  the  town,  between  1400 
and  1600  feet  elevation.  The  area  is  all  hill  pasture  and 
moor,  without  habitations  or  farm-steadings ;  and  the 
Council  owns  only  7  acres,  the  site  of  the  impounding 
reservoir  and  filter  beds.  No  precautions  are  considered 
necessary  against  contamination  of  the  gathering  ground. 

Swansea  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  catchment 
areas,  aggregating  5156  acres  : 

1.  Lliw  or  Velindre  area,  2476  acres,  between  416  and 
1226  feet  elevation,  with  Lower  Lliw,  Upper  Lliw,  and 
Blaenant  Dhu  reservoirs.  The  gathering  ground,  on  the 
head- waters  of  the  Lliw  River,  comprises  2144  acres  of 
hill  pasture  and  moor,  193  acres  of  arable  land,  115  acres 
of  reservoir  sites  and  works,  and  24  acres  of  plantations, 
recently  felled.  Only  147  acres  are  above  the  1000  feet 
contour  line,  being  unenclosed  mountain  pasture.  There 
are  on  the  area  eighteen  farmsteads  and  habitations,  the 
drainage  of  which  is  distributed  over  the  land  by  irrigating 
channels  ;  and  two  contaminated  streams,  which  intercept 
the  drainage  of  nine  habitations,  are  conveyed  by  pipes 
below  the  reservoir  embankment. 

2.  Cray  area,  2680  acres,  between  1000  and  2380  feet 
elevation,  all  hill  pasture  and  moorland,  except  six  acres  of 
plantations  and  124  acres  of  reservoir  site  and  works.  No 
less  than  1250  acres  are  above  the  1500  feet  contour  line. 
The  catchment  area,  comprising  the  head-waters  of  the  Cray 
River,  is  in  Brecknockshire,  about  30  miles  from  Swansea. 
On  the  area  there  are  two  shepherds'  cottages,  the  drainage 
of  which  is  conveyed  below  the  Cray  reservoir  by  the  bye- 
wash  channel.  The  annual  rainfall  on  the  area  varied  in 
1915  from  63-90  inches  at  1030  feet  to  85-50  inches 
at  2170  feet  altitude. 

As  there  is  no  filtration,  in  addition  to  the  precautions 
taken  with  regard  to  sewage  of  habitations,  constant  patrols 
are  in  operation  on  both  catchment  areas ;  and  any  dead 
sheep  are  collected  and  properly  disposed  of  by  arrangement 
with  the  farmers. 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  243 

Of  the  Lliw  area,  the  Corporation  own  215  acres,  of 
which  all  but  about  100  acres  is  occupied  by  reservoir  sites 
and  works.  Of  the  Cray  area,  the  Corporation  own  174 
acres,  of  which  all  but  50  acres  is  occupied  by  reservoir 
site  and  works.  There  would  thus  be  in  the  two  areas 
about  150  acres  of  land  owned  by  the  Corporation  available 
for  afforestation.  This  150  acres  is  below  1200  feet 
elevation.  Mr.  G.  R.  Collinson,  the  Water  Engineer,  is  of 
opinion  that  "  the  catchment  areas,  comprising  principally 
mountain  pasture,  seem  to  be  lands  which,  in  the  event  of 
the  State  acquiring  land  for  afforestation,  could  be  more 
valuably  used  for  that  purpose  than  remain  in  their  present 
condition.  The  few  plantations  that  exist  seem  to  indicate 
that  afforestation  on  an  extensive  scale  and  under  proper 
management  could  not  fail  to  be  successful.  Unless  the 
Government  can,  however,  obtain  land  more  advantageously 
than  public  authorities  seem  to  be  able  to  do  so  for  public 
purposes.  State  afforestation  schemes  would  have  to  be 
developed  on  very  uneconomic  lines." 

The  Swansea  water  supply  is  described  by  R.  H.  Wyrell, 
C.E.,  in  Proc.  Inc.  Assoc.  Municipal  and  County  Engineers, 
vol.  32,  pp.  61-70  (1906). 

Margamhas  a  gathering  ground  of  1000  acres,  at  400  to 
1000  feet  elevation.  None  of  the  area  is  owned  by  the  Cor- 
poration except  the  site  of  the  impounding  reservoir  at  Cwm 
Wenderi,  10|-  acres  in  extent,  which  is  held  on  a  lease 
of  999  years.  There  are  no  habitations  or  farm-steadings 
on  the  gathering  ground,  which  is  frequently  inspected. 
The  water,  which  is  not  filtered,  is  frequently  analysed. 

Neath  receives  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering  ground 
of  843  acres,  situated  to  the  east  of  the  town,  between  200 
and  1000  feet  elevation.  The  area,  none  of  which  is  owned 
by  the  Town  Council,  comprises  80  acres  of  arable  land, 
533  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  and  230  acres  of 
plantations  ;  and  upon  it  there  are  the  five  farms  of  Brynau, 
Glannant,  Cefn-Saeson,  Crynallt,  and  Preswylfa.  The  water 
is   filtered,   and   certain   drainage   arrangements  have  been 


244  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

made  on  the  gathering  ground,  which  would  seem  to   be 
suitable  for  an  extensive  scheme  of  afforestation. 

Briton  Ferry  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  a  gathering  ground  of  240  acres  on  Pant 
Howellddu  and  Cefn  Coed  Mountain,  between  500  and 
1000  feet  elevation,  comprising  60  acres  of  arable  land, 
140  acres  of  hill  pasture,  and  40  acres  of  plantations. 
The  area,  of  which  the  Council  owns  19  acres,  has  four 
dwelling-houses  and  farmsteads  upon  it.  It  is  systematically 
inspected  and  the  water  is  filtered. 

Glyncorwg  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
in  part  from  the  Nantryallor  Brook,  with  a  gathering  ground 
of  550  acres,  situated  close  to  the  town,  between  900  and 
1000  feet  altitude.  The  whole  area  is  leased  by  the 
Council  and  consists  of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  without 
houses,  farm- steadings,  or  plantations.  The  water  is  not 
filtered,  but  the  gathering  ground  is  periodically  inspected 
to  guard  against  contamination. 

Pontypridd  and  Rhondda  Joint  Water  Board  obtain  their 
water  supply  in  part  from  (1)  Pontlluestwen  reservoir,  with 
a  gathering  ground  of  1484  acres,  between  1336  and  1678 
feet  elevation,  at  the  head  of  the  valley  of  the  Rhondda 
Each  (Ordnance  Survey,  Glamorgan  Sheet,  xi.  13),  and 
(2)  Castell  Nos  reservoir,  lower  in  the  same  valley,  with  a 
gathering  ground  of  682  acres,  between  1110  and  1695 
feet  elevation.  The  two  areas,  comprising  2166  acres,  are  en- 
tirely moorland,  and  without  houses,  farmsteads,  or  plantations. 
The  Board  own  only  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs,  and  a 
narrow  strip  around  them.  The  water  is  filtered,  and  no 
other  precautions  against  contamination  are  taken. 

Mountain  Ash  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  five  gathering  grounds : 

Clydach  Brook  .  205  acres,  between  932  and  1548  feet  elevation. 

Sychnant  Brook  .  566     ,,            „          950  ,,  1351    ,, 

Nantyrisfa    .  .  165     „           ,,          950  ,,  1278    ,, 

Darenlas        .  .  329     „            ,,          600  ,,  1300    ,,          „ 

Ffrwd  Brook  .  170     ,,           ,,         700  ,,  1462    „ 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  245 

The  total,  1435  acres,  of  which  the  Council  owns  only 
40  acres,  situated  on  the  Clydacli  area,  consists  of  1085 
acres  of  very  hilly  pasture  and  moorland,  grazed  by  a  few 
mountain  sheep,  and  350  acres  of  plantations.  On  this 
account  the  risk  of  contamination  is  considered  negligible, 
and  no  special  measures  against  it  are  taken.  There  are 
three  storage  reservoirs,  Perthgelyn,  Clydach  Ynysybwl,  and 
Darenlas ;  and  only  the  water  from  the  Darenlas  reservoir 
is  filtered. 

Rhondda  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from: 

1.  An  intake  on  the  upper  course  of  the  Rhondda 
River,  at  1250  feet  elevation,  with  a  gathering  ground  of 
820  acres,  rising  to  1969  feet  altitude  (Craig-y-llyn).  The 
weir  formerly  on  the  Rhondda  River  is  no  longer  used. 

2.  Llyn  Fawr,  a  lake  which  has  been  converted  into  a 
reservoir  of  200,000,000  gallons  capacity,  with  a  catchment 
area  of  247  acres,  situated  between  1208  and  1969  feet 
elevation. 

3.  Nant  Ystrad  Ffernol,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  237 
acres,  between  1000  and  1690  feet  elevation. 

4.  Nant  Selsig,  Tyisaf  Mountain,  with  a  gathering 
ground  of  358  acres,  between  900  and  1600  feet 
elevation. 

The  total  area,  1662  acres,  none  of  which  is  owned  by 
the  Council,  is  hill  pasture  and  moorland,  grazed  only  by 
sheep,  and  without  houses  or  farmsteads.  The  water  is 
filtered,  and  the  gathering  ground  is  periodically  inspected. 
Besides  Llyn  Fawr,  there  is  a  small  storage  reservoir  at 
Tynywaun  near  Treherbert. 

Aberdare  Urban  District  Council  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  three  gathering  grounds,  totalling  1995  acres  in 
extent  : 

Nanthir  and  Nantmoel  reservoirs,  with  a  catchment 
area  of  1075  acres,  between  900  and  1250  feet  elevation, 
about  4  miles  north  of  Aberdare. 

Bwllfa  reservoir,  with  a  catchment  area  of   570  acres. 


246  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

between  800  and  1450  feet  elevation,  about  2 J  miles 
to  the  west  of  Aberdare. 

Pwllfa  reservoir,  with  a  catchment  area  of  350  acres, 
between  1100  and  1550  feet  elevation,  about  3  miles  to 
the  south  of  Aberdare. 

The  District  Council  do  not  own  and  have  no  control 
over  these  areas,  which  consist  entirely  of  mountain  land, 
mostly  sheep  pasture,  and  free  from  any  habitations  or 
farmsteads.  The  water  is  filtered.  No  special  measures 
against  contamination  are  taken  on  the  gathering  grounds. 

Llantrisant  and  Llantwitfardre  Rural  District  Council  obtain 
their  water  supply  in  part  from  (1)  a  gathering  ground 
of  66  acres  at  Maendy,  all  moorland,  and  between  950  and 
1280  feet  elevation;  and  (2)  a  gathering  ground  of  409 
acres  at  Llanillid,  between  575  and  985  feet  elevation,  all 
moorland  except  13|-  acres  of  arable  land.  There  are 
no  habitations  or  farmsteads  on  the  areas,  which  are  not 
owned  by  the  Council.  The  Llanillid  water  is  filtered,  and 
periodical  inspection  of  both  areas  is  made. 


CHAPTER    XI 

WATER    CATCHMENT    AREAS   IN    SCOTLAND 

As  no  official  publication  on  the  water  supplies  of  Scottish 
municipalities  has  yet  appeared,  the  following  account  of 
the  principal  gathering  grounds  of  Scotland  will  be  of 
interest.  This  information  is  the  result  of  queries  addressed 
to  the  town  clerks  and  burgh  surveyors,  and  would  have 
been  more  complete  but  for  the  stress  of  war  time. 
Attention  is  again  drawn  to  the  fact  already  mentioned 
that  so  few  of  these  gathering  grounds  are  owned  by 
the  Corporations.  This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  as 
in  Scotland,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  these  areas  to 
industrial  centres,  their  afforestation,  an  easy  matter  in 
many  cases,  if  they  were  publicly  owned,  would  be  certain 
to  prove  remunerative.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the 
sanitary  precautions  taken  on  the  areas  that  are  privately 
owned  are  often  insufficient  to  prevent  contamination  of 
the  water  supply.  The  compulsory  public  ownership  of  the 
gathering  grounds  in  Scotland  would  then  seem  to  be 
necessary,  both  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  adequate 
sanitary  control  of  the  water  supply,  and  as  a  means 
of  increasing  the  reserves  of  growing  timber  in  the 
country. 

The  78  local  authorities  in  Scotland,  from  whom 
reports  have  been  received,  obtain  their  water  supply 
from  gathering  grounds  which  aggregate  243,624  acres 
in  extent.  Only  16  local  authorities,  namely,  Edinburgh, 
Dundee,  Paisley,  Clydebank,  Ayr,  Dairy,  Mid  Lanarkshire, 

247 


248 


FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 


Airdrie  and  Coatbridge,  Bo'ness,  Kirkcaldy  and  Dysart, 
Newburgh, Lauder,  Turriff,  Kingussie,  Tain,  and  Kirkcudbright, 
own  or  hold  on  long  lease  their  catchment  areas  in  whole 
or  part,  the  total  amount  of  land  in  their  possession  being 
reported  as  27,829  acres.     These  figures  are  not  exhaustive. 


Fig.  42.— West,  Central,  and  South  Scotland  Catfhment  Areas. 


as  they  do  not  include  the  small  areas  owned  as  reservoir 
sites  by  some  of  the  local  authorities. 

Afforestation  is  being  carried  out  by  Edinburgh  on 
the  Talla  area,  by  Dundee  on  the  Lintrathen  area,  and  by  Mid 
Lanarkshire  on  the  Camps  area,  and  special  attention  may 
be  directed  to  the  excellent  scheme  of  the  last-named 
authority,   which   is   described    on    p.   29.       On    the    other 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN   SCOTLAND   249 

owned  areas,  there  are  scarcely  any  woods,  and  no  plantation 
schemes  are  in  contemplation. 


I.  Perth  (West),  Dumbarton,  Argyll,  Bute,  and 
Renfrew  Counties 

Gathering  grounds,  59,513  acres,  supplying  eleven  local 
authorities;  3543  acres  owned  by  two  local  authorities. 

Glasgow  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  sources, 
Loch  Katrine  and  the  Gorbals  Waterworks.  Loch  Katrine, 
situated  in  the  Highlands,  34  miles  to  the  north,  provides 
the  greater  part  of  the  city  of  Glasgow,  as  well  as  Renfrew 
and  several  small  towns  and  villages,  with  a  remarkably 
pure  and  abundant  supply  of  water.  The  original  level  of 
the  lake  was  raised  by  embankment  9  feet,  so  that  it  now 
has  3000  acres  of  water  surface.  An  additional  supply  to 
Loch  Katrine  is  brought  by  a  tunnel  from  Loch  Arklet, 
which  has  been  raised  22  feet  above  its  original  level 
and  increased  in  surface  from  217  to  551  acres  by  works 
begun  in  1909.  The  water  undergoes  no  filtration,  being 
merely  strained  through  fine  wire-gauze  netting  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  sticks  and  leaves  into  the  pipes.  The  Loch 
Katrine  catchment  area,  including  the  Loch  Arklet  area,  is 
27,312  acres  in  extent,  and  consists  of  uncontaminated 
sparsely  populated  moorland,  with  a  great  deal  of  peaty 
surface.  The  ownership  of  the  whole  gathering  ground 
remains  in  private  hands ;  but  in  order  to  secure  the 
water  supply  from  pollution,  the  feuing  rights  over  the 
entire  drainage  to  Loch  Katrine  and  Loch  Arklet  were  pur- 
chased by  the  Corporation  at  a  cost  of  £18,300  ;  and  the 
owners  of  the  land  within  that  area  are  prohibited  from 
erecting  houses  or  buildings  on  any  part  of  the  gathering 
ground. 

The  Glasgow  Corporation  also  utilise  Loch  Vennachar, 
including  Loch  Drunkie,  with  a  total  catchment  area  of 
24,686  acres,  for  compensation  water.  Recently  the 
gathering  ground  of  Glenfinlas,  9600  acres,  which  forms 


250  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

part  of  the  Loch  Vennachar  area,  has  been  set  aside  to 
provide  at  a  future  date  an  additional  water  supply  to 
Loch  Katrine  for  consumption  in  Glasgow.  In  view  of 
this,  the  Corporation  in  1915  paid  £30,250  to  the  Earl 
of  Moray,  and  £2250  to  the  Commissioners  of  Woods, 
in  respect  of  the  Crown  interests  in  the  Eoyal  Forest  of 
Glenfinlas,  or  £32,500  in  all,  for  freehold  and  wayleaves  in 
Glenfinlas  for  additional  waterworks,  including  obligation 
on  the  part  of  the  owners  to  erect  no  buildings  on  the 
gathering  ground  of  9600  acres  to  the  intended  reservoir. 

The  Gorbals  Waterworks  obtains  its  supply  from  the 
Brock  Burn,  about  6  miles  south  of  Glasgow.  The  water 
is  impounded  into  the  Balgray,  Ryat  Linn,  Waulkmill, 
and  Littleton  reservoirs,  situated  at  296  to  352  feet  eleva- 
tion. The  gathering  ground,  which  is  within  the  agricul- 
tural zone,  is  2560  acres  in  extent.  The  Corporation 
have  acquired  only  the  water  rights  of  this  area.  The 
water  is  passed  through  two  sets  of  filters. 

No  proposals  have  been  made  as  regards  the  afforestation 
of  either  the  Loch  Katrine  or  Gorbals  water  catchment  areas, 
neither  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Glasgow  Corporation. 

Helensburgh  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  small 
stream  provided  with  a  weir  at  570  feet  elevation.  The 
gathering  ground,  about  800  acres  of  hill  pasture,  extends 
from  this  elevation  up  to  2100  feet,  no  part  of  it  being 
owned  by  the  Corporation.  There  are  three  storage  reser- 
voirs, the  water  of  the  two  largest  of  which  is  screened 
and  filtered,  and  of  the  smallest  is  screened  but  not 
filtered.  No  other  measures  are  taken  against  con- 
tamination. 

Alexandria,    Bonhill,    and    Jamestown     District    Council 

obtain  their  water  supply  from  Glen  Einlas  reservoir,  with  a 
gathering  ground  of  440  acres,  entirely  hill  pasture,  situ- 
ated between  1600  and  2000  feet  elevation.  Of  the  total 
area,  which  is  without  houses,  farm-steadings,  or  planta- 
tions, the  Council  own  40  acres.  No  precautions  are 
necessary  against  contamination  of  the  water. 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND   251 

Dumbarton  obtains  its  water  supply  from  three  catch- 
ment areas  in  the  Kilpatrick  Hills,  aggregating  1273 
acres  : 

1.  Lochs  Humphry  and  Fyn,  522  acres. 

2.  Black  Linn,  111  acres. 

Both  areas  at  1051  to  1200  feet  elevation;  hill  grazing 
and  grouse  moor. 

3.  Overton  Glen,  640  acres,  at  500  to  1050  feet 
elevation ;  grazing  and  game  preserves,  slightly  wooded. 

The  Town  Council  do  not  own  the  areas,  and  have 
control  over  the  water  rights  only.  There  are  no  farm- 
steadings  ;  and  consequently  no  measures  are  needed,  it  is 
said,  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  water.  The  Town 
Clerk  does  not  think  that  it  would  be  in  the  interest  of 
the  Corporation  to  acquire  the  ownership  of  the  lands,  look- 
ing at  the  price  which  would  require  to  be  paid  for  them. 

The  Clydebank  and  District  Water  Trust  is  the  local 
authority  for  the  supply  to  the  Burgh  of  Clydebank  and  the 
villages  of  Duntocher  and  Hardgate.  There  are  five 
catchment  areas,  viz. : 


Catchment  Area. 

Acres. 

Altitude  in  Feet. 

Loch  Cochuo 

361 

881-1082 

Jaw  Reservoir 

229 

881-1170 

Greenside  Reservoir 

855 

830-1250 

Burncrooks  Reservoir 

.        1070 

820-1171 

Finland  Burn 

1190 

820-11(53 

all  situated  in  the  Kilpatrick  Hills,  mostly  covered  with 
peat,  grazed  by  sheep,  and  without  any  human  habitations. 
The  water,  otherwise  pure,  is  stained  a  peaty  colour,  which 
is  removed  by  the  filters  at  Cochno.  The  annual  rainfall 
in  1912  was  51*48  inches.  The  lands  of  Cochno,  Jaw,  and 
Greenside  reservoirs  are  held  by  payment  of  a  yearly  feu- 
duty  ;  while  the  Finland  Burn  area  is  owned  by  the 
Trust  for  the  purposes  of  the  Water  Supply  Act  of  1906. 
No  planting  scheme  has  been  contemplated,  as  the  ground, 
which  is  without  any  trees,  is  considered  to  be  unsuitable 
for  afforestation. 


252  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

Dunoon  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  behind  the  reservoir  at  the  west  end  of  the 
burgh.  It  is  hill  pasture  grazed  by  sheep,  and  comprises 
1100  acres  between  242  and  1651  feet  elevation.  As 
there  are  no  farm-steadings  or  habitations  on  this  area, 
there  is  little  risk  of  contamination  of  the  water,  which 
is  filtered.  The  Town  Council  do  not  own  the  land,  which 
is  without  trees.  The  annual  rainfall  in  1912  was  9  6 '8 
inches. 

Rothesay  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Loch  Ascog  and 
Loch  Dhu,  with  a  catchment  area  of  919  acres,  between 
120  and  450  feet  elevation.  The  Corporation  own  no 
part  of  the  area,  which  is  made  up  of  261  acres  of  arable 
land,  511  acres  of  hill  pasture,  and  147  acres  of  planta- 
tions. There  is  one  farm-steading  on  the  gathering  ground. 
The  water  is  filtered,  but  no  other  measures  are  taken  to 
prevent  contamination. 

Greenock  is  supplied  by  the  Shaws  Waterworks,  which 
have  a  catchment  area  of  about  10,000  acres  in  the  hills 
south  of  the  town,  extending  to  Kelly  Dam  (640  feet 
altitude),  Knockencorsan  (1040  feet),  Creuch  Hill  (1446 
feet),  and  Duchal  Moor  (1150  feet).  Although  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  area  lies  between  500  and  1000  feet 
elevation,  it  is  practically  all  upland  moorland,  with  scarcely 
any  trees,  and  is  said  to  be  free  from  risk  of  contamina- 
tion. The  chief  reservoirs  are  Loch  Thorn  (also  known  as 
Shaws  Water),  Gryfe  reservoir,  and  Compensation  reservoir. 
The  Corporation  have  merely  acquired  the  rights  of  the 
area,  and  own  only  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs. 

Port  Glasgow  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  catch- 
ment areas : 

1.  Auchendores  and  Lepers  tone  reservoirs  ;  gathering 
ground  at  500  feet  elevation,  comprising  467  acres  of 
arable  land  and  pasture,  and  23  acres  of  plantations,  490 
acres  in  all. 

2.  Knocknairshill  and  Dougliehill  reservoirs ;  gathering 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND   253 

ground  at  700  feet  elevation,  comprising  35  acres  of  arable 
land  and  pasture,  and  75  acres  of  wood  and  moorland,  110 
acres  in  all. 

On  the  catchment  area  of  the  Auchendores  and  Leper- 
stone  reservoirs,  which  are  contiguous,  there  are  several 
farm-steadings,  the  drainage  of  which  is  diverted  past  the 
reservoirs  by  a  pipe  drain.  There  are  arable  fields  adjoining 
the  reservoirs  ;  but  the  possible  contamination  from  these 
is  not  considered  very  serious.  The  Town  Council  possess 
only  the  water  rights  over  the  two  gathering  grounds,  and 
have  no  control  as  to  how  the  land  is  to  be  used. 

The  District  Committee  of  the  First  or  Upper  District  of 
the  County  Council  of  Renfrew  obtain  their  water  supply 
from  two  gathering  grounds.  The  Carmunnock  Works, 
which  include  three  reservoirs,  are  situated  on  the  Highflat 
Burn  in  Carmunnock  Parish,  Lanarkshire,  and  have  a 
catchment  area  of  500  acres,  at  565  to  691  feet  elevation, 
none  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Committee  except  the 
sites  of  the  reservoirs.  The  area,  on  which  there  is  one 
farm,  is  made  up  of  20  acres  of  water,  440  acres  of 
arable  land,  25  acres  of  plantations,  and  15  acres  of  hill 
pasture.  The  Bennan  (or  Binend)  Loch  gathering  ground, 
in  Renfrewshire,  comprises  275  acres,  at  840  to  960  feet 
elevation,  of  which  85  acres  under  water  are  owned  by 
the  Committee.  The  remainder,  190  acres,  is  hill  pasture, 
privately  owned,  and  without  any  farmsteads.  The  Com- 
mittee also  own  70  acres,  the  site  of  Lochcraigs  reservoir, 
not  yet  constructed.  This  reservoir  will  have  a  catchment 
area  of  405  acres,  at  805  to  895  feet  elevation,  all  hill 
pasture,  privately  owned,  and  with  only  a  shepherd's  cottage 
upon  it. 

Paisley  obtains  its  water  supply  from  three  catchment 
areas,  aggregating  7746  acres  in  extent.  .  (1)  The  collecting 
ground  of  the  Camphill  reservoir,  4257  acres,  between  600 
and  1584  feet  elevation,  lies  on  the  hills  of  northern 
Ayrshire,  and  is  fed  by  the  burns  at  the  head  of  Rye  Water 
from  Camphill  to  Black  Law  and  Irish  Law.      It  is  mostly 


254  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

rough  hill  pasture  under  sheep  grazing,  with  a  few  acres 
only  of  peat  and  plantations.  (2)  The  Rowbank  and 
Barcraigs  reservoirs  in  Renfrewshire  have  a  gathering 
ground  of  2263  acres,  under  750  feet  elevation,  and  mostly 
rough  hill  pasture  with  a  few  acres  only  of  wood  and 
arable  land.  (3)  The  Stanely,  Glenburn,  and  Harelaw 
reservoirs,  a  short  distance  south  of  Paisley,  have  a  gathering 
ground  of  1226  acres,  under  750  feet  altitude,  and  nearly 
all  rough  pasture,  with  very  little  peat  and  only  a  few  acres 
of  wood.  The  Council  have  water  rights  over  the  three  catch- 
ment areas ;  and  in  connection  with  the  disposal  of  sewage, 
have  acquired  ownership  of  some  of  the  farms,  viz. :  558  acres 
on  the  Rowbank  and  Barcraigs  area,  and  350  acres  on  the 
Stanely  area.  On  the  land  owned  within  the  areas  by  the 
Corporation  there  are  no  occupied  houses.  On  the  land 
controlled  by  the  Corporation,  200  acres  on  the  Rowbank 
area,  restrictions  are  imposed  as  to  manuring ;  and  no 
cropping  or  ploughing  is  allowed.  On  the  farms  not  owned 
by  the  Corporation,  arrangements  when  possible  are  made 
with  the  farmers  or  proprietors  to  lay  the  drains  in  such  a 
position  that  they  will  lead  the  sewage  clear  of  any  of  the 
water  courses  feeding  the  reservoirs.  In  cases  where  this 
method  cannot  be  carried  out  owing  to  unsuitable  levels, 
watertight  tanks  or  reservoirs  are  constructed  to  which  the 
sewage  is  conveyed  ;  and  a  pump  and  handcart  are  given  to 
the  farmer  by  the  Corporation,  and  he  arranges  to  empty 
the  tank  or  cesspool  as  required.    The  water  supply  is  filtered. 


II.  Ayr,  Wigtown,  Kirkcudbright,  and  Dumfries 
Counties 

Gathering  grounds,  24,817  acres,  supplying  thirteen 
local  authorities  (Camphill  area  supplying  Paisley  included  ; 
Kilbirnie  area  not  included,  as  its  acreage  is  unknown). 
3094  acres  owned  by  three  local  authorities. 

Ardrossan  obtains  its  water  supply  from  four  impounding 
reservoirs,   Busbie  Muir,  Mill  Glen,  Whitelees,  and  Park- 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AKEAS  IN  SCOTLAND   255 

house,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  about  1000  acres, 
between  80  and  700  feet  elevation;  and  of  this  about  5 
acres  are  under  plantations.  The  Corporation,  who  only 
own  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs,  are  unable  to  take  any 
special  measures  against  contamination  on  the  catchment 
area.     The  water  is  passed  through  sand  filters. 

Beith  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Kirklugreen  and 
Cuff'hill  reservoirs,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  290  acres, 
at  Cuff  and  the  surrounding  hills,  between  464  and  680 
feet  elevation.  The  County  Council  own  only  the  sites  of 
the  reservoirs,  about  1 8  acres  fenced  in,  and  have  no  control 
over  the  remaining  272  acres,  except  the  protection  against 
pollution  given  by  the  Public  Health  (Scotland)  Act,  1897, 
and  the  Waterworks  Clauses  Act,  1847.  Of  the  gathering 
ground,  57  acres  are  plantations,  and  219  acres  are  mostly 
hill  pasture,  with  a  small  proportion  of  arable  land ;  and  on 
it  there  are  three  habitations  and  two  farm-steadings.  The 
water  is  filtered,  but  no  other  special  precautions  against 
contamination  are  taken. 

Dairy  obtains  its  water  supply  from  an  impounding 
reservoir  on  Thirdpart  Farm,  l^-  miles  N.W.  of  the  town, 
with  a  gathering  ground  of  about  350  acres,  between  700 
and  1099  feet  elevation,  the  highest  point  being  Braidland 
Hill.  This  area,  of  which  80  acres  are  owned  by  the 
Council,  comprises  20  acres  of  arable  land  and  300  acres 
of  hill  pasture  and  moor,  and  has  one  habitation  upon  it. 

Kilbirnie  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  storage 
reservoir  on  the  Pundeavan  burn  at  890  feet  elevation. 
The  extent  of  the  catchment  area,  on  which  there  are  no 
habitations  or  farmsteads,  has  not  been  ascertained.  The 
Northern  District  Committee  of  the  County  of  Ayr  own  the 
reservoir  site,  14  acres. 

The  Irvine  and  District  Water  Board  supply  the  towns 
of  Irvine,  Kilwinning,  Stevenston,  and  Saltcoats.  There  are 
two  catchment  areas,  situated  to  the  west  of  Dairy,  viz. : 


256  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 


Gaaf  Reservoir  area — 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Over  1000  feet  altitude 

379 

Below       „ 

2197 

2576 

Muniioch  Reservoir  area — 

All  under  1000  feet  altitude 

1280 

Total 

3856  acres. 

The  total  comprises  500  acres  of  arable  land,  3315 
acres  of  pasture,  and  41  acres  of  old  and  new  plantations. 
The  Water  Board  own  161  acres  at  Caaf  reservoir ;  but 
have  only  water  rights  over  the  remainder  of  the  areas. 
All  the  land  is  at  present  farm-let.  The  sewage  on  the 
farms  is  led  to  intercepting  drains  and  discharged  below  the 
reservoirs,  except  on  two  farms,  where  it  is  irrigated  over 
grassland.  The  water  is  filtered  at  Greenhead.  No  plant- 
ing operations  have  been  contemplated. 

Kilmarnock  has  two  water  catchment  areas : 

1.  Northcraig  area,  1500  acres,  between  450  and  700 
feet  elevation,  extending  from  Oldhall  in  the  south-west  to 
Blair  on  the  north-east.  It  is  partly  arable,  and  partly 
pasture,  with  18  farm-steadings.  On  two  of  the  farms, 
nearest  to  the  reservoirs,  addle  tanks  and  carts  are  provided. 

2.  Dunton  area,  1300  acres,  between  826  and  1009 
feet  elevation,  all  pasture  and  peaty.  There  is  only  one  farm- 
steading  ;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  drains  within  the  area. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  is  42*74  inches. 

No  part  of  the  areas  is  owned  or  controlled  by  the 
Corporation.  There  are  no  trees  on  either  area.  The  water 
is  passed  through  a  sand  and  gravel  filtration  plant.  There 
are  five  reservoirs,  Northcraig,  Gainford,  Burnfoot,  Dunton, 
and  Loch  Goin. 

Ayr  obtains  its  water  supply,  partly  from  springs  at 
Milton  and  Grange,  near  Maybole,  with  two  reservoirs  at 
Carcluie ;  and  partly  from  Lochs  Finlas  and  Derclach. 
These  two  small  lakes,  about  17  miles  S.S.E.  of  Ayr,  and 
at  834  feet  elevation,  are  situated  in  a  hilly  district  entirely 
devoted  to  pasture.  By  the  construction  of  an  embankment 
about  12  feet  high  across  the  outlet.  Loch  Finlas  was  raised. 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  IN  SCOTLAND   257 

and  converted  into  an  impounding  reservoir  containing 
347,000,000  gallons  of  water.  The  catchment  area,  2680 
acres  in  extent,  is  held  by  the  Corporation  as  a  freehold, 
and  comprises : 

Above  1500  feet  elevation       ....  17  acres. 

Between  1000  and  1500  feet  ....        1036    ,, 
Below  1000  feet 1627    „ 


Total         .        2680  acres. 

The  area,  which  is  uninhabited  and  of  a  peaty  nature,  is 
grazed  by  sheep,  there  being  no  arable  land  or  plantations. 
The  water  from  Loch  Finlas,  which  is  very  soft  and  slightly 
brownish  from  a  peaty  stain,  is  conveyed  to  Knockjarder 
reservoir,  where  it  is  mixed  with  the  Milton  and  Grange 
spring  water,  the  mixture  obtained  being  passed  through 
filter  beds.  No  scheme  of  planting  the  Loch  Einlas  catch- 
ment area  has  been  proposed.  See  description  of  Ayr 
water  supply  by  John  Young,  C.E.,  in  Proc.  Inc.  Assoc. 
Municipal  and  Cou7ity  Engineers,  yo\.  32,  pp.  82-93  (1906). 

Girvan  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Pinmacher  Burn, 
3  miles  to  the  south-east  of  the  town.  The  catchment 
area  consists  of  200  acres  of  hill  pasture  at  500  to  800 
feet  elevation.  The  Town  Council  own  only  the  site  of  the 
reservoir. 

Troon,  Prestwick,  and  the  Ayrshire  Special  Water  District, 

which  includes  many  mining  villages,  are  supplied  with 
water  from  Loch  Bradan  in  the  southern  highlands  of  Ayr- 
shire. Loch  Bradan  was  raised  a  height  of  8  feet  by  a 
dam  built  across  the  valley,  thus  making  it  and  the  ad- 
joining Loch  Lure  one  continuous  sheet  of  water,  166  acres 
in  extent  and  986  feet  above  sea  -  level.  There  are  five 
other  small  lakes  on  the  watershed  :  Lochs  Dhu,  Breckbowie, 
Skelloch,  Cornish,  and  Girvan  Eye.  The  catchment  area, 
3650  acres  in  extent,  is  clean  hill  pasture,  absolutely  free 
from  human  habitation.  The  Troon  Town  Council  own 
only  the  land  covered  by  Lochs  Bradan  and  Lure,  which 
are  fenced  in.      The  Loch  Bradan  area  adjoins  the  Loch 

s 


258  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

Finlas  area,  belonging  to  Ayr  ;  and  for  afforestation  purposes 
both  might  be  united  in  one  scheme. 

Stranraer  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Dindinnie 
reservoir,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  550  acres,  between 
150  and  160  feet  elevation,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the 
town.  The  area,  which  has  one  farmstead  on  it,  comprises 
70  acres  of  arable  land  and  480  acres  of  hill  pasture. 
The  water  is  filtered,  and  contamination  of  the  gathering 
ground  is  guarded  against  by  piping  and  fencing. 

Kirkcudbright  obtains  its  water  supply  from  High,  Low, 
and  Mid  Boreland  farms,  which  aggregate  334  acres,  at 
140  to  300  feet  elevation,  all  owned  by  the  Town  Council. 
There  are  farm-steadings  and  habitations  on  the  area ;  but 
as  the  supply  comes  from  springs  and  not  from  surface 
water,  the  risk  of  pollution  is  not  very  great. 

Dumfries  and  Maxwelltown  obtain  their  supply  from 
Loch  Eutton,  in  Kirkcudbrightshire,  which  has  a  catch- 
ment area  of  3500  acres,  between  320  and  600  feet 
elevation,  consisting  partly  of  arable  land  and  partly  of 
pasture.  There  are  approximately  16  farm-steadings  and 
50  houses  on  the  area,  which  has  a  population  of  500 
persons,  but  the  greater  number  dwell  in  the  village  of 
Lochfoot,  the  sewage  of  which  is  drained  clear  of  the  lake. 
Certain  agreements  were  entered  into,  about  4  years  ago, 
with  the  proprietors  and  tenants  of  three  farms  near  the 
loch,  by  which  measures  were  taken  to  prevent  the  sewage 
finding  its  way  into  the  loch.  The  other  farms  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  dealt  with.  No  part  of  the  catchment 
area  is  owned  by  the  Dumfries  and  Maxwelltown  Water 
Commissioners.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  1907-1916 
was  47*78  inches. 

Annan  obtains  its  water  supply  from  an  impounding 
reservoir  at  Purdomstown  in  Middlebie  parish,  with  a 
gathering  ground  of  1350  acres,  situated  between  440 
feet  and  1000  feet  elevation.  It  is  mainly  hill  pasture, 
without    any  plantations   or   arable   land.       There   are   no 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND   259 

steadings  upon  it,  but  there  are  two  houses.  Of  the 
total  area  16  acres  are  owned  by  the  Corporation.  I 
have  no  information  as  to  what  measures  are  taken  against 
contamination  of  the  water. 


III.  Stirling  and  Lanark  Counties 

Gathering  grounds,  43,362  acres,  supplying  fifteen  local 
authorities  (Gorbals  area  supplying  Glasgow  and  Car- 
munnock  area  supplying  Upper  District  of  Renfrew 
included).      10,290  acres  owned  by  two  local  authorities. 

Stirling  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Touch  catch- 
ment area,  about  4  miles  south-west  of  the  town,  1250 
acres  in  extent,  of  which  600  acres  are  below  1000  feet 
elevation  and  650  acres  between  1000  and  1500  feet. 
The  area  is  wild  rocky  moorland  and  rough  hill  grazing, 
without  arable  land,  peat,  plantations,  or  habitations.  The 
Waterworks  Commissioners  own  only  the  sites  of  the 
reservoirs,  53^  acres,  but  have  the  right  to  take  water 
in  perpetuity  subject  to  an  annual  payment.  The  three 
reservoirs  are  at  887,  759,  and  707  feet  elevation;  a 
small  settling  pond  is  at  484  feet,  and  the  filters  are  at 
455  feet.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  30  years  on  the 
area  is  44-43  inches,  varying  from  34*77  to  63'25  inches. 

Kilsytli  obtains  its  new  water  supply  from  the  Corrie 
reservoir,  about  a  mile  north-west  of  the  burgh,  with  a 
gathering  ground  of  190  acres,  all  hill  pasture,  between 
852  and  1393  feet  altitude.  The  Council  own  the  site  of 
the  reservoir  and  some  land  around  it,  about  12|-  acres 
fenced  in.  The  catchment  area,  which  has  no  habitations 
or  farm-steadings,  is  grazed  by  sheep  and  a  few  cattle.  The 
sheep  drains  are  occasionally  cleared  out  near  the  reservoir. 
The  water  is  not  filtered.  The  total  annual  rainfall  in  1 9 1 2 
was  70*20  inches- 
Denny  and  Dunipace  Burgh  obtains  its  water  supply 
from  Overton  catchment  area,  220  acres  in  extent,  between 


260  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

639  and  1159  feet  elevation.  An  adjoining  catchment 
area  of  190  acres  could  be  taken  in  if  desired,  but  it  is 
not  used  at  present.  The  Town  Council  have  merely  the 
right  to  impound  the  water,  and  own  only  4j  acres  of  land 
adjoining  one  of  the  reservoirs.  The  gathering  ground  is 
under  grazing,  and  there  is  little  chance  of  its  cultivation 
or  of  the  water  being  polluted.  It  would  certainly  be  of 
great  advantage,  I  am  informed,  if  the  hill  on  which  the 
reservoirs  stand  could  be  planted,  but  the  Town  Council 
have  no  rights  in  the  land  which  would  enable  them  to 
facilitate  the  planting  thereof. 

The  Falkirk  and  Larbert  Trust  obtain  their  supply  of 
domestic  water  from  a  catchment  area  on  the  Denny  and 
Kilsyth  Hills,  2150  acres  in  extent,  and  between  700  and 
1480  feet  elevation,  all  upland  pasture  under  sheep  and 
cattle  grazing,  with  only  one  habitation  at  the  lowest  point, 
and,  in  consequence,  no  danger  of  contamination.  The 
water  is  passed  through  sand  filters.  There  is  also  a  catch- 
ment area  of  1145  acres  for  compensation  water  on  the 
Touch  Hills  at  1170  to  1430  feet  elevation,  covered 
with  heather  and  peat  and  under  sheep  grazing.  The 
Trust  have  only  water  rights  over  these  two  catchment 
areas. 

Bridge  of  Allan  Water  Company,  a  private  Company, 
supplies  the  town  with  water  from  the  Wharrie  Burn  and 
the  Cox  Burn,  which  are  led  into  the  Cox  Burn  reservoir, 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  Bridge  of  Allan.  The 
Company  owns  only  the  site  of  the  reservoir,  and  has 
not  supplied  any  details  regarding  the  acreage  or  nature 
of  the  catchment  area,  which  is  situated  in  a  well-wooded 
district. 

Grangemouth  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  of  2300  acres  at  the  head  of  Bannock  Burn  in  the 
Denny  Hills,  about  5  miles  south-west  of  Stirling,  and 
between  553  and  1442  feet  elevation,  reaching  its  highest 
point  at  Earl's  Hill,  and  with  a  northerly  exposure.     The 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND  261 

Town  Council  have  only  control  over  the  water  rights,  and 
do  not  own  the  catchment  area,  which  is  under  sheep 
grazing,  there  being  practically  no  trees.  There  is  one 
small  farm -steading  and  a  shepherd's  hut  on  the  area, 
but  no  special  measures  are  taken  to  prevent  contamina- 
tion of  the  water,  which  is  not  filtered,  as  the  risk  from 
these  two  buildings  is  very  slight.  Mr.  D.  A.  Donald,  the 
engineer  in  charge,  is  convinced  of  the  desirability  of  Corpora- 
tions securing  full  ownership  of  water  catchment  areas. 

The  Eastern  District  Committee  of  the  Stirling  County 
Council  obtain  their  water  supply  from  the  Buckieburn 
reservoir  in  St.  Ninian's  parish,  with  a  catchment  area  of 
934  acres  of  hill  pasture,  partly  peaty  and  partly  loamy 
clay,  at  800  to  1150  feet  elevation.  The  gathering  ground, 
which  is  without  habitations,  farm-steadings,  or  plantations, 
is  not  owned  by  the  Committee.  The  water  is  filtered. 
The  annual  rainfall  in  the  10  years  1907-1916  varied 
from  49-08  to  67-11  inches. 

Lanarkshire  Middle  Ward  District  Waterworks  supplies 
an  area  of  281  square  miles,  including  14  parishes,  but 
excluding  the  burghs  of  Hamilton,  Motherwell,  Wishaw, 
Airdrie,  and  Coatbridge.  There  are  three  sources  of  supply : 
Glengavel  reservoir,  8  miles  south  of  Strathaven ;  Logan 
and  Dunside  reservoirs,  8  miles  south-west  of  Lesmahagow 
on  Logan  Water ;  and  the  Camps  area,  3^  miles  E.N.E.  of 
Crawford  village.  The  Camps  area,  6800  acres,  of  which 
about  4400  acres  are  between  1500  and  2141  feet  eleva- 
tion, 1200  acres  between  1250  and  1500  feet,  and  1200 
acres  between  980  and  1250  feet,  is  all  owned  by  the 
County  Council,  who  are  now  carrying  out  a  scheme  of 
afforestation,  involving  ultimately  the  planting  of  2426 
acres.      See  pp.  27-32  for  full  description. 

The  other  catchment  areas — Glengavel  gathering  ground, 
3820  acres,  between  839  and  1556  feet  elevation,  and  the 
Logan  and  Dunside  areas,  2200  acres,  between  1018  and 
1712  feet — are  privately  owned,  but  the  County  Council 
control  the  full  water  rights.      It  is  not  proposed  now  to 


262  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

afforest  these  areas,  which  are  largely  composed  of  peat, 
giving  off  at  certain  seasons  water  dark  in  colour  and  con- 
taining matter  in  suspension.  Mr.  W.  A.  P.  Tait  gave  in 
Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  159,  pp.  329-341,  Plate  11, 
fig.  1  (1903),  an  account  of  the  Mid-Lanark  water  supply, 
with  map  showing  its  distribution  and  all  the  reservoirs  in 
Lanarkshire. 

Hamilton  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  catchment 
areas:  (1)  Kype  reservoir  area,  2140  acres  of  moorland 
at  936  to  1556  feet  above  sea-level,  the  latter  elevation 
being  that  of  Goodbush  Hill,  north  of  Muirkirk.  The  area 
is  rough  grazing  for  sheep,  and  some  peat,  without  any  arable 
land  or  farm-steadings.  Forty-four  acres  are  owned  by  the 
Corporation.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  47*28  inches. 
The  water  is  passed  through  sand  filters.  (2)  Wellbrae 
and  Cadzow  area,  1480  acres  of  arable  land  and  pasture, 
at  601  to  766  feet  altitude.  On  Cadzow  there  are 
3  farm  -  steadings,  and  on  Wellbrae  5  farm  -  steadings 
and  4  habitations,  but  all  sewage  is  intercepted  by  fire- 
clay pipes  and  run  past  the  reservoir.  Fifty-six  acres  are 
owned  by  the  Town  Council.  There  are  20  acres  of  Scots 
pine  plantation,  and  the  annual  rainfall  averages  34-66 
inches.     The  water  is  passed  through  mechanical  filters. 

The  Bathgate  District  Committee  of  the  Linlithgowshire 
County  Council  obtain  their  water  supply  from  the  Forrest- 
burn  reservoir,  south  of  Forrestfield  Station,  with  a  gathering 
ground  in  Lanarkshire  of  1540  acres  at  750  to  1000  feet 
altitude.  This  area  consists  of  1300  acres  of  hill  pasture, 
200  acres  of  moorland,  20  acres  of  arable  land,  and  20  acres 
of  tree  plantations.  It  is  not  owned  by  the  County  Council, 
who  have  only  the  water  rights  ;  and  as  it  is  free  from  farm- 
steadings  and  habitations,  no  special  measures  are  taken  to 
prevent  contamination  of  the  water. 

Motherwell  obtains  its  water  supply  from  three  catch- 
ment areas,  as  follows : 

1.   Culter  reservoir,  25 J  miles  S.E.  of  Motherwell,  has  a 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND  263 

gathering  ground  of  1963  acres  in  the  steep  stony  hills  at 
the  sources  of  Culter  Water  and  west  of  Culter  Fell.  The 
ground  lies  between  1150  and  2454  feet  elevation,  and  is 
used  for  sheep  grazing,  there  being  apparently  little  or  no 
risk  of  pollution. 

2.  Springfield  reservoir,  3^  miles  east  of  Carluke,  has  a 
catchment  area  of  1100  acres  at  866  to  1029  feet  eleva- 
tion, mostly  grazing.  Part  of  the  land,  being  under  cultiva- 
tion, is  cut  off  by  a  bye- wash. 

3.  Coldstream  reservoir,  the  water  of  which  is  not  used 
for  domestic  purposes,  has  a  catchment  area  of  650  acres,  at 
817  to  1009  feet  altitude,  all  agricultural  land. 

The  Corporation  own  no  part  of  these  areas,  except  the 
sites  of  the  reservoirs.  Part  of  the  Culter  gathering  ground 
could  probably  be  afforested  in  the  same  way  as  the  Camps 
catchment  area,  which  almost  adjoins  it. 

Lanark  obtains  its  water  supply  from  an  impounding 
reservoir  on  Tinto  Hill  in  Carmichael  parish,  with  a  gather- 
ing ground  of  790  acres,  situated  between  1000  and  2317 
feet  elevation,  entirely  hill  pasture  and  moorland,  except  8 
acres  of  plantations,  and  free  from  habitations  or  farm- 
steadings.  The  Corporation  own  only  the  site  of  the 
reservoir  and  filters,  about  12  acres,  and  no  special  pre- 
cautions against  contamination  of  the  water  seem  to  be 
necessary. 

Wishaw  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Elvanfoot  and 
Gair  reservoirs.  The  Elvanfoot  catchment  area — 6890 
acres,  between  1000  and  2403  feet  elevation — is  in  the 
Lowther  Hills,  comprising  Burby  Shank,  Faugh  and  Laght 
Hills,  with  Riccart,  Law  Rig  and  Meikle  Shag,  which  are 
drained  by  the  Potrail  Water  and  Potrennick  and  Pedden 
Burns.  It  is  partl);^sheep  grazing  and  partly  grouse  moors. 
Afforestation  on  simitar  lines  to  that  on  the  Camps  area 
may  be  possible.  Gair  catchment  area,  395  acres,  at  764 
to  1083  feet  altitude,  is  in  the  Benty  Hillocks,  west  of 
Lamington,  and  is  all  under  sheep  grazing.  Particulars  of 
ownership  of  the  two  areas  have  not  been  obtainable. 


264  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

The  Airdrie,  Coatbridge,  and  District  Water  Trust  obtain 
their  water  supply  from  two  catchment  areas,  which  are 
held  as  freehold — Rough  Rigg,  acquired  in  1846,  and  Cowgill 
in  1893.  The  catchment  area  of  the  Rough  Rigg  reservoir, 
2100  acres,  at  687  to  900  feet  elevation,  lies  to  the  east  of 
Airdrie,  near  Clarkston,  and  consists  of  grazing  and  arable 
land.  Cowgill  reservoir  has  a  gathering  ground  of  1390 
acres,  between  1000  and  2000  feet,  east  of  Lamington  in 
Clydesdale,  all  under  grazing  except  1 3  acres  of  plantations. 
No  schemes  for  planting  trees  have  been  contemplated. 

IV.  LoTHiANs,  Peebles,  Berwick,  Selkirk,  and 
Roxburgh  Counties 

Gathering  grounds,  30,382  acres,  supplying  thirteen 
local  authorities.  6690  acres  owned  by  three  local 
authorities. 

Edinburgh  obtains  its  water  supply  from  three  localities  : 
the  Pentland  Hills,  the  Moorfoot  Hills,  and  the  Talla  area 
in  Peeblesshire. 

The  water  supply  from  the  Pentland  Hills  is  mainly 
from  springs,  none  of  the  surface  water  being  utilised  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  the  Glencorse  area.  A  description  of 
these  springvS  and  of  the  various  reservoirs  which  have  been 
built  on  the  north  side  of  the  Pentlands  to  provide  compen- 
sation water,  etc.,  is  given  by  Mr.  A.  Leslie  in  Proc.  Inst. 
Civil  Engineers,  vol.  74,  pp.  91-127  (1883),  and  need  not 
be  repeated  here,  as  there  is  no  necessity  on  hygienic 
grounds  to  afforest  the  areas  in  which  these  reservoirs  are 
situated.  Mr.  Leslie  explains  that  "  the  configuration  of 
the  north  side  of  the  Pentlands  would  not  permit  of  a  sur- 
face water  scheme  being  adopted  for  Edinburgh  as  the  water 
is  almost  always  coloured  with  peat,  and  in  wet  weather 
very  much  so."  The  Glencorse  valley,  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Pentlands,  the  surface  water  of  which  is  used,  has  a 
catchment  area  of  3825  acres,  situated  between  750  and 
1750  feet  elevation,  comprising : 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  IN  SCOTLAND   265 


Above  1500  feet  elevation 

25  acres 

Between  1250  and  1500  feet    . 

.        231     „ 

Between  1000  and  1250  feet    . 

.      1240     ,, 

Between  750  and  1000  feet      . 

.      2258     „ 

Reservoir       ...... 

71     „ 

Total         .         .      3825  acres. 

There  are  two  reservoirs,  Glencorse  and  Loganlea. 
According  to  Mr.  Leslie,  "  the  water  draining  into  the 
Glencorse  reservoir  is  naturally  free  from  peat,  the  water- 
shed consisting  of  high  hills  covered  with  short  grass.  How- 
ever, it  becomes  more  mossy  towards  the  upper  reaches,  so 
that  the  water  impounded  in  the  Loganlea  reservoir  is  at 
times  darkly  coloured.  The  whole  catchment  area  is  under 
hill  grazing  with  the  exception  of  45  acres.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  is  37*61  inches.  The  Glencorse  gathering 
ground  would  seem  to  be  suitable  for  afforestation,  but  it  is 
not  owned  by  the  Edinburgh  Corporation.  The  Water 
Trustees  only  exercise  over  the  area  the  general  powers  to 
prevent  fouling  of  the  water  that  are  conferred  by  the 
Waterworks  Clauses  Act  of  1847." 

The  Moorfoot  Waterworks  consist  of  three  areas :  Glad- 
house  reservoir,  with  a  catchment  area  of  6131  acres, 
Tweedale  Burn,  1337  acres,  and  Portmore  reservoir  with 
610  acres,  or  8078  acres  in  all.  There  are  two  compensa- 
tion reservoirs,  Roseberry  and  Edgelaw,  the  former  on  the 
South  Esk  and  the  latter  on  its  tributary,  the  Fullerton 
Burn.  The  Moorfoot  areas  are  not  owned  by  the  Edinburgh 
Corporation,  and  no  scheme  for  their  afforestation  has  been 
mooted. 

The  Talla  catchment  area  comprises  6180  acres,  of  which 
5760  acres  have  been  purchased  by  the  Edinburgh  Cor- 
poration. Most  of  it  is  at  a  high  elevation,  as  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


Between  1500  and  2526  feet  elevation 

.     4520  acres. 

1250    „     1500     ,, 

.        510     „ 

,,         1000    ,,     1250    ,, 

.       720     „ 

950    „     1000    „ 

.        130     „ 

Reservoir  at  950  feet  elevation 

.        300     ,, 

Total  area 

.      6180  acres 

HAPEHILL          nAIN  GAUGE  _  .  N?     I. 

LOOANUEE                  „  „  _      N?    2. 

CL6N  COTTAGE       ,,  „  _     NS  3. 

OUEtfCORSE  FILTEflS  ,,  _      N?  4-. 

Scale    I  Inch  ==  I  Mile. 
MILE  I  *<»         vs  /«         o 


Fig.  43. — Edinburgh.     Glencoise  Burn  Catchment  Area. 
(From  Proc.  Intt.  Civil  Enginters,  vol.  194.) 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AKEAS  IN  SCOTLAND   267 

There  is  no  arable  land  on  the  area,  which  is  mostly  hill 
grazing.  In  1912  there  were  27  acres  of  young  plantations, 
but  no  mature  woods.  Mr.  W.  A.  P.  Tait,  who  published 
in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  167,  pp.  102-152  (1907), 
an  account  of  the  Talla  water  supply  with  map  and  dia- 
grams, states  that  "  practically  the  whole  gathering  ground, 
which  is  mainly  hill  pasture,  with  about  440  acres  of  peat, 
was  acquired  at  a  cost  of  £36,000  by  the  Trustees,  who  are 
thus  enabled  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  water  draining 
into  the  reservoir.  The  Trustees  derive  a  rent  of  a  little 
more  than  £300  per  annum  for  the  hill  pasture  above  the 
level  of  the  reservoir."  The  average  annual  rainfall  on  the 
area  varies  from  47*66  to  73'92  inches  at  the  different 
stations. 

Mr.  Stebbing  of  the  Edinburgh  University,  who  drew  up 
a  planting  scheme  in  1912,  is  of  opinion  that  600  acres  of 
the  whole  area  are  available  for  planting,  the  upper  limit 
extending  on  exposed  hillsides  to  the  1250  feet  contour 
line,  and  in  sheltered  glens  to  about  1400  feet.  Planting 
was  begun  in  1914  (Fig.  16),  the  plan  providing  for  10 
acres  annually  for  the  first  three  years,  and  50  acres  yearly 
afterwards.  As  none  of  the  plantable  land  is  situated  at  a 
lower  elevation  than  950  feet,  the  number  of  species  available 
is  very  limited.  Scots  pine  is  considered  to  be  inadvisable. 
Larch  is  recommended  for  the  lower  elevations,  and  Sitka 
spruce  for  the  higher  ground  above  the  larch  up  to  1250 
feet  contour  line ;  while  Douglas  fir  could  be  planted 
wherever  there  was  good  soil  in  sheltered  situations  in 
the  glens.  In  moist  localities  common  spruce  would  be 
used  in  place  of  the  other  species. 

The  Development  Commissioners  sanctioned  in  1913— 
1914  a  loan  of  £150  for  the  experimental  planting  of 
about  30  acres  on  the  Talla  catchment  area.  Of  this  only 
£75  has  apparently  been  advanced  by  the  Treasury.  The 
larger  scheme  by  which  the  Edinburgh  and  District  Water 
Trust  were  to  be  provided  with  funds  for  planting  at  least 
600  acres  appears  to  be  in  abeyance. 

W.   C.   Eeid,  in  Proc.  Inst.    Civil  Engineers,  vol.    194, 


Fig.  44.— Edinburgh.     Talla  Water  Catchment  Area. 
(From  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  194.) 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND  269 

pp.  4-9  (1914),  discusses  the  rainfall  and  gives  maps,  now 
reproduced,  of  the  Glencorse  and  Talla  areas.  See  also 
B.  H.  Blyth  and  W.  A.  Tait  in  Ptoc.  R.  Soc.  Edinhurgh,  xxv. 
616,  with  map  (1905). 

Loanhead  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Hillend  reservoir, 
which  has  a  gathering  ground  of  50  acres,  at  1200  feet 
elevation.  The  Town  Council  have  also  a  good  spring  on 
Pentland  Mains. 

Bo'ness  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  catchment 
areas  situated  about  three  miles  south  of  the  town. 
Lochcote  reservoir  has  a  gathering  groiind  of  600  acres, 
between  600  and  800  feet  elevation,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Brunton  and  Kipps  burns  (on  the  west  side  of  the  Kipps 
Hill)  in  Torphichen  Parish,  Linlithgowshire.  Carribber 
reservoir  has  a  gathering  ground  of  280  acres,  between 
450  and  600  feet  elevation,  on  the  north-west  side  of 
Bowden  Hill.  Both  areas  are  clean  pasture  land,  without 
trees,  the  only  habitation  being  Lochcote  House,  the 
drainage  of  which  is  intercepted  and  discharged  into  the 
stream  below  the  reservoir  embankment.  The  Town  Council 
own  the  site  of  the  Lochcote  reservoir,  about  54  acres ; 
and  hold  on  lease  for  99  years  the  land  at  Carribber.  The 
annual  rainfall  averages,  over  a  period  of  15  years,  about 
34  inches.      The  water  supply  is  filtered. 

The  Linlithgow  District  Committee  obtain  their  water 
supply  from  the  Morton  reservoir,  which  has  a  gathering 
ground  of  500  acres  of  hill  pasture,  at  700  to  1500  feet 
elevation,  situated  between  Morton  and  Corston  farms,  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Pentland  Hills.  There  are  no  farm- 
steadings  or  houses  on  the  area,  which  is  not  owned  by  the 
County  Council.  There  were  16  acres  of  Scots  pine  in 
1912.     The  average  annual  rainfall  is  38*11  inches. 

Whitburn  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering 
ground  of  88  acres,  between  600  and  620  feet  elevation, 
comprising  40  acres  of  arable  land  and  48  acres  of  hill 
pasture.     The    water    is    not    filtered.     The    statement  in 


270  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Journ.  Board  of  Agriculture,  xi.  472  (1904),  that  the 
Burgh  owns  100  acres  of  catchment  area,  I  am  informed, 
is  incorrect. 

The  Central  District  of  the  County  of  Linlithgow  are  con- 
structing on  the  Eiccarton  Burn,  two  miles  south  of 
Linlithgow,  the  Bescraigs  reservoir,  with  a  gathering  ground 
of  560  acres.  The  Corporation  own  none  of  the  land, 
which  consists  of  1 6  0  acres  of  arable,  100  acres  of  pasture, 
occasionally  ploughed,  250  acres  of  permanent  pasture,  and 
50  acres  of  plantations.  There  is  a  farm-steading,  but  a 
drain  has  been  constructed  to  take  the  sewage  past  the 
reservoir.  In  the  opinion  of  the  engineers,  "it  would  be 
very  advantageous  from  the  waterworks  point  of  view  if 
this  area  were  afforested,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  so  large 
a  portion  is  arable  land."  It  ranges  in  elevation  from  500 
to  900  feet  above  sea-level. 

The  Prestonpans  Combination  Water  Trust  obtain  their 
supply  from  the  Yester  catchment  area,  500  acres  of 
heather  moor,  at  950  to  1753  feet  altitude  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Lammermuir  Hills.  The  Trust  do  not  own  the 
area,  which  is  all  above  the  agricultural  zone  ;  but  have 
some  control  over  it  given  by  various  Acts  of  Parliament. 
There  is  no  complaint  about  contamination  of  the  water. 
There  are  two  reservoirs. 

North  Berwick  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Donolly 
reservoir,  west  of  Garvald,  with  a  catchment  area  of  1070 
acres,  at  700  to  1306  feet  elevation;  and  from  the  Thorter 
reservoir,  south-east  of  Garvald,  with  a  catchment  area  of 
900  acres,  between  810  and  1400  feet  elevation.  The 
gathering  grounds,  which  are  on  the  northern  edge  of  the 
Lammermuir  Hills,  consist  of  hill  pasture,  without  any 
population,  there  being  only  one  shepherd's  hut,  which 
is  on  the  Donolly  area.  A  small  piece  of  cultivated 
ground  near  one  of  the  reservoirs  does  not  drain  into  it. 
No  special  precautions,  except  filtration  of  the  water,  have 
been  considered  necessary  by  the  Town  Council,  who  own 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND   271 

only  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs,  for  which  an  annual  payment 
is  made.  The  proprietors  of  the  land  have  recently  done  a 
little  planting  of  trees.  The  annual  rainfall  averages 
31*30  inches  for  Thorter  and  34*40  inches  for  Donolly. 
The  Donolly  reservoir  obtains  its  supply,  not  from  the 
Donolly  stream,  which  proved  unsuitable,  but  from  the 
adjacent  Papana  stream. 

Duns  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  reservoir  on 
Hardens  Hill,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  361  acres, 
between  557  and  1166  feet  elevation.  The  area,  only 
4  acres  of  which  are  owned  by  the  Corporation,  is  without 
habitations,  and  comprises  65  acres  of  arable  land,  240 
acres  of  hill  pasture,  and  56  acres  of  plantations.  The 
water  is  filtered. 

Lauder  is  reported  in  Journ.  Board  of  Agriculture,  xi. 
472  (1904),  to  own  a  catchment  area  of  650  acres,  hill 
pasture,  at  900  feet  elevation.  Information  about  this 
water  supply  has  not  been  obtainable. 

Galashiels  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Caddon 
Water  valley,  with  a  catchment  area  of  4160  acres,  at  800 
to  2160  feet  elevation,  mostly  moorland  and  grazed  by  a 
few  sheep.  The  Town  Council  do  not  own  the  area,  but 
have  the  water  rights. 

Hawick  water  supply  is  obtained  from  hill  pasture  lands 
to  the  south-west  of  the  town.  The  main  supply  is  from 
the  Dod  Burn,  about  6  miles  off,  with  a  catchment  area  of 
1280  acres  at  700  to  1500  feet  elevation,  and  the  water  is 
stored  in  Acre  Knowe  reservoir,  at  610  feet  elevation. 
Another  supply  is  taken  direct  from  the  Allan  Water  at 
Lodburn,  about  5  miles  away.  There  is  a  population 
of  20  persons  on  the  catchment  areas,  which  are  not 
owned  by  the  Town  Council.  The  land  is  hill  pasture 
grazed  by  sheep,  except  20  acres  arable.  None  of  the 
water  is  filtered,  and  complaints  are  sometimes  made 
in  summer  about  its  fishy  taste.  This  is  due  to  a  weed 
which   grows  in  the  Acre    Knowe    reservoir.     The  water 


272  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

supply,  however,  is  excellent  and  abundant,  and  rushes  as  a 
clear  stream  along  the  channels  of  the  streets,  washing 
them  night  and  day. 

Kelso  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  reservoir  in  the 
Cheviot  Hills,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  1300  acres, 
between  763  and  1842  feet  elevation,  practically  all  hill 
pasture  and  moor,  and  without  habitations  or  farm-steadings. 
The  town  owns  only  the  site  of  the  reservoir,  which  is 
surrounded  by  an  unclimbable  fence.  The  water  is  passed 
through  screens. 

V.  Clackmannan,  Kinross,  and  Fife  Counties 

Gathering  grounds,  27,772  acres,  supplying  eleven  local 
authorities  (Loch  Glow  and  Cullaloe  areas  supplying 
Dunfermline  District  included),  1884  acres  owned  by 
three  local  authorities, 

Alloa  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Gartmorn 
reservoir,  which  has  a  direct  gathering  ground  of  1148 
acres ;  but  an  additional  supply  is  obtained  by  an  aqueduct 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  Black  Devon  River,  with  a 
catchment  area  of  11,125  acres.  The  whole  area  lies 
approximately  between  the  200  and  1000  feet  contours, 
and  consists  of  arable,  pasture,  and  woodlands,  with  a  small 
proportion  (about  -^^)  of  moorland.  There  are  51  farm- 
steadings  on  the  area,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Town 
Council,  except  the  sites  of  the  reservoir  and  the  intake 
aqueduct.  No  special  precautions  are  taken  against  con- 
tamination of  the  water,  which  is  passed  through  sand 
filters. 

Lochgelly  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  reservoirs. 
Upper  and  Lower  Lochornie,  with  a  gathering  ground  of 
611  acres,  situated  between  684  and  965  feet  elevation, 
and  comprising  4  acres  of  arable  land,  559  acres  of  hill 
pasture  and  moorland,  and  48  acres  of  plantations,  which 
are  now  partly  cut  down.  The  Corporation  own  only  the 
sites  of  the   reservoirs,  about  15  acres,  but  have  powers 


274  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

to  take  an  additional  supply  from  Craigencat  Burn,  with 
154  acres  of  catchment  area.  The  gathering  ground  has 
one  farm  and  one  shepherd's  house  upon  it,  but  no  special 
precautions  are  taken  except  that  the  water  is  filtered. 
Mr,  A.  Lumsden,  the  Burgh  Surveyor,  considers  the 
greater  part  of  the  two  gathering  grounds  to  be  suitable 
for  afforestation. 

Burntisland  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Cullaloe 
reservoir,  with  a  catchment  area  in  the  valley  of  Dour 
Burn,  1200  acres,  between  300  and  500  feet  elevation. 
The  gathering  ground  comprises  1000  acres  of  arable 
land  and  200  acres  of  woodland,  none  of  which  is  owned 
by  the  Town  Council,  except  the  site  of  the  reservoir 
and  a  margin  around  it,  varying  from  the  width  of  a  few 
feet  to  about  50  yards.  The  reservoir  is  now  divided  by  an 
embankment  into  two  distinct  parts.  The  south  bay, 
receiving  pure  water  from  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Dour 
Burn,  supplies  the  town ;  while  the  north  bay,  fed  by 
somewhat  impure  water  from  the  Cullaloe  Burn,  supplies 
compensation  water  to  the  lower  riparian  owners.  The 
Council  have  no  control  over  the  gathering  ground,  which  is 
reported  to  have  a  population  of  150  persons ;  but  the 
sewage  from  three  farms  is  led  clear  of  the  domestic  supply 
reservoir  and  the  water  is  filtered.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  taken  over  a  period  of  23  years  is  31*94  inches. 

Kirkcaldy  and  Dysart  Commissioners  obtain  their  water 
from  Drumain,  Harperlees,  and  Holl  supply  reservoirs ;  and 
in  addition  there  are  the  Ballo  and  Arnot  compensation 
reservoirs.  The  total  catchment  area  is  3922  acres,  ranging 
in  elevation  from  645  to  1712  feet,  namely,  to  the  top  of 
West  Lomond  Hill.  Of  the  whole  area,  the  Commissioners 
own  1654  acres,  all  hill  pasture  and  moor,  except  20 
acres  of  arable  land  and  55  acres  of  plantations.  The 
remaining  2268  acres  are  moor  and  hill  pasture,  except 
66  acres  of  plantations.  There  are  20  persons  resident  in 
six  dwelling-houses  on  the  gathering  ground.  Practically 
all  the  sewage  is  carried  past  the  reservoirs,  or,  alternatively, 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND   275 

passes  into  reservoirs  which  are  not  used  for  domestic 
purposes.  The  water  is  partly  filtered  by  sand  beds  and 
partly  by  open  mechanical  filter  beds.  The  plantations 
on  the  catchment  area  show  that  it  is  suitable  for  a 
considerable  scheme  of  afforestation. 

Wemyss  and  District  Water  Trust  obtain  their  supply 
from  two  gathering  grounds :  Coul  reservoir,  with  a  catch- 
ment area  of  1000  acres,  between  493  and  1467  feet 
elevation ;  and  Carriston  reservoir,  with  a  catchment  area 
of  1100  acres,  between  311  and  750  feet  elevation.  The 
Trustees  own  26  acres  of  the  Coul  area,  and  26  acres  of 
the  Carriston  area.  The  Coul  gathering  ground  is  mainly 
pasture,  but  has  four  farmhouses,  with  five  farm-steadings 
and  byres,  a  keeper's  house,  and  a  mill  upon  it.  The 
Carriston  area  is  largely  arable  land,  with  some  plantations 
upon  it,  which  are  now  being  cut  down.  It  has  a  consider- 
able population,  with  21  houses  of  various  kinds,  2  shops, 
a  sawmill,  and  10  farmsteads,  byres,  etc.  Some  of  the 
farm-steadings  and  byres  are  fitted  with  sewage  tanks  and 
pumps.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Cupar  (Fife)  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Clatto  reser- 
voir, with  a  gathering  ground  of  820  acres,  at  550  to  650 
feet  elevation,  described  as  nearly  all  hill  pasture  without 
any  plantations.  There  is  one  farm  with  buildings  on  the 
area,  and  a  septic  tank  is  used  for  the  sewage.  Part  of  the 
land  of  four  other  farms  drains  into  the  gathering  ground. 
The  Town  Council  own  only  8  acres.  The  annual  rainfall 
was,  in  1911,  33-44  inches,  and  in  1912,  21*78  inches. 
The  water  is  passed  through  sand  filters. 

Leven  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Leven  reservoir, 
with  a  gathering  ground  of  1250  acres  in  Largo  and 
Scounie  parishes,  at  250  to  300  feet  elevation,  all  arable 
land  and  pasture.  The  Town  Council  own  only  the  water 
rights.  The  sewage  from  the  houses  and  farms  on  the  area 
is  intercepted  by  spigot  and  faucet  pipes,  and  is  carried  past 
the  reservoir. 


276 


FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 


The   Pittenweem  and  the  Anstruthers  Joint  Waterworks 

obtain  their  water  supply  from  a  catchment  area  of  lOVO 
acres,  situated  on  Kellie  Law,  Carnbee  Law,  and  the  ridge 
of  lower  ground  eastward,  between  177  and  500  feet  eleva- 
tion. The  Committee  own  only  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs 
on  the  gathering  ground,  which  is  practically  treeless  and 
mainly  arable.  It  includes  Gordonshall  farm  and  Carnbee 
village  and  farm,  the  sewage  of  which  is  carried  off  in  a  pipe 
system  and  falls  into  the  main  burn  below  the  waterworks. 

St.  Andrews  obtains  its  water  supply  from  three  catch- 
ment areas,  which  are  situated  in  Cameron  parish,  at  no 
great  elevation  above  sea-level.  The  Burgh  Surveyor  has 
supplied  me  with  the  following  particulars : 


Catchment  Area. 

Acres. 

Altitude  in 
feet. 

Farm- 

steadings. 

Habitations. 

Cairnsmill 
Lambieletham    . 
Cameron    . 

906 

550 

1450 

250-450 
350-500 
470-650 

5 
3 
5 

19 
14 
19 

The  total  area,  2906  acres,  which  is  partly  arable  and 
partly  under  pasture,  has  thus  no  less  than  13  farm-stead- 
ings and  52  habitations  upon  it.  The  means  taken  to 
prevent  pollution  of  the  water  are :  fencing  of  the  streams 
and  reservoirs ;  providing  water-troughs  for  stock  ;  separate 
drainage  for  farms  into  septic  tanks  and  cesspools  ;  sedimen- 
tation in  the  reservoirs,  and  careful  filtration.  The  Council 
have  merely  water  rights  over  the  greater  part  of  the  area, 
the  only  portion  owned  being  180  acres  at  Cameron,  100 
acres  of  which  are  under  water,  the  remaining  80  acres 
being  almost  fully  planted  with  trees.  See  W.  Watson,  in 
Proc.  Inc.  Assoc.  Municipal  and  County  Engineers,  vol.  33, 
pp.  239-242  (1907). 

Newburgh  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Loch  Mill,  with 
a  gathering  ground  of  900  acres,  at  about  700  feet  eleva- 
tion, without  habitations  or  farmsteads,  and  comprising  500 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND   277 

acres  of  arable  land,  300  acres  of  hill  pasture  and  moor, 
and  100  acres  of  plantations.  Of  the  total  area,  the  town 
owns  150  acres.     The  water  is  filtered. 


VI.    Perth  (East)  and  Forfar  Counties 

Gathering  grounds,  50,935  acres,  supplying  ten  local 
authorities.      1500  acres  owned  by  one  local  authority. 

The  Kirkcaldy  District  of  tlie  County  of  Fife,  in  which 
Kirkcaldy,  Dysart,  and  Kinghorn  Burghs  are  not  included, 
will  be  supplied  with  water  from  two  gathering  grounds  in 
the  Ochil  Hills  in  Perthshire.  The  river  Farg  catchment 
area,  on  which  a  reservoir  is  being  built,  contains  1437 
acres,  at  550  to  1000  feet  elevation.  The  Slateford  Burn 
catchment  area  adjoins  the  last,  and  comprises  1166  acres, 
at  650  to  1200  feet  altitude.  The  water  will  be  taken 
from  the  Slateford  Burn  to  the  Farg  reservoir  by  a  24-inch 
pipe.  None  of  the  land  is  owned  by  the  Council  except 
about  100  acres  required  for  the  site  of  the  reservoir.  On 
the  Farg  area  there  are  200  to  300  acres  of  arable  land, 
the  rest  being  rough  pasture.  The  Council  intend  to  divert 
the  sewage  from  the  four  existing  farm  -  steadings ;  but 
measures  for  preventing  contamination  of  the  reservoir  are 
troublesome  on  account  of  the  divided  ownership,  as  there 
are  twelve  proprietors  on  the  Farg  area.  There  is  little 
arable  laud  on  the  Slateford  Burn  area,  most  of  it  being 
rough  pasture.  The  engineers  are  of  opinion  that  the  afforesta- 
tion of  the  Farg  gathering  ground  would  be  desirable,  in 
order  to  secure  the  purity  of  the  water  supply ;  but  it  is 
very  doubtful  if  the  County  Council  could  face  the  expense 
of  acquiring  the  whole  area  for  this  purpose.  Meanwhile, 
compensation  is  liable  to  be  paid  to  proprietors  who  may 
be  injuriously  affected  by  any  restrictions  imposed  under  the 
Water  Act  for  the  prevention  of  pollution.  See  W.  C.  Reid, 
in  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Engineers,  yo\.  194,  p.  6,  Fig.  3  (1914), 
for  rainfall  and  map,  here  reproduced,  of  the  Slateford  and 
Farg  areas. 


RAIN        GAUGES 

NO     I        HCATHERIELCVS  N«  ♦       PLAINS 

M«    2       HEATHEBIELEVS    IJUABBUN'?    S       WHITEMI 


Fl(j.  46. — Kirkcaldy  District.     Slateford  Burn  and  River  Farg 

Catchment  Areas. 

(From  Ptoc.  Inst.  Ciail  Engineers,  vol.  194.) 


Glendevon. 

Glenquey. 

3052  acres. 

454  acres. 

1733      „ 

374     „ 

843      „ 

374     „ 

152      „ 

97      „ 

5780  acres. 

1299  acres. 

WATEE  CATCHMENT  AKEAS  IN  SCOTLAND  279 

Dunfermline  District  is  supplied  with  water  froin  4  catch- 
ment areas,  the  two  largest  of  which,  Glendevon,  5780  acres, 
and  Glenquey,  1299  acres,  are  in  the  Ochil  Hills.  These 
two  areas  are  divided  according  to  elevation  as  follows  : 

Above  1500  feet  elevation     . 

Between  1250  and  1500  feet  elevation   . 

1000  and  1250     , 
Under  1000  feet  elevation    . 

Total 

These  areas  are  mainly  rough  grazing  for  sheep,  with  a 
little  peat,  and  no  arable  land.  The  Dunfermline  District 
Committee  of  the  Fife  County  Council  own  none  of  the 
land  except  the  sites  of  the  reservoirs.  No  special  precau- 
tions are  taken  against  contamination  from  dead  sheep  or 
from  disease  among  the  sheep,  the  risk  being  considered 
negligible.  The  water  is  passed  on  to  the  consumer  in  its 
natural  state,  without  being  filtered.  The  Dunfermline 
District  Committee  supply  the  whole  of  the  water  required 
for  Admiralty  purposes  at  Rosyth.  The  Admiralty  are  said 
to  be  part-owners  of  the  works  at  Glenquey  and  of  the  new 
reservoir  which  is  being  built  at  Erandy  in  Glendevon. 

Loch  Glow  reservoir  has  a  catchment  area  of  650  acres, 
in  the  counties  of  Fife  and  Kinross,  between  890  and  1103 
feet  elevation.  Cullaloe  gathering  ground,  70  acres,  lies 
between  500  and  700  feet  altitude.  Both  the  Loch  Glow 
and  Cullaloe  areas  are  under  sheep  grazing  and  uninhabited. 
The  water  from  them  is  passed  through  sand  filters. 

Dunfermline  Town  Council  obtains  its  water  supply  in 
part  from  Glensherrup,  in  the  Ochil  Hills,  with  a  catchment 
area  of  1300  acres,  between  935  and  2004  feet  elevation. 
The  gathering  ground,  of  which  40  acres  are  owned  by  the 
town,  is  entirely  hill  pasture  and  moor,  without  any  planta- 
tions, and  free  from  habitations  and  farmsteads.  "  It  has 
never  been  found  necessary,  in  all  the  35  years  the  works 
have  been  in  operation,  to  take  any  precautions  against 
contamination."     There  is  a  secondary  supply  at  Craigluscar, 


280  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

three  miles  from  Dunfermline,  with  a  catchment  area  of 
360  acres,  situated  between  300  and  600  feet  elevation. 
Fully  a  half  of  this  is  arable  land.  A  further  but  very 
small  supply  is  taken  from  shallow  ground  springs  at 
Glassiebarus. 

Crieff  obtains  its  water  supply  in  part  from  Loch  Turret, 
which  has  a  catchment  area  of  3855  acres,  between  1127 
and  3048  feet  elevation,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the 
town.  The  whole  area,  except  165  acres  covered  by  the 
loch,  is  hill  pasture,  and  has  two  shepherds'  cottages  and 
one  shooting  lodge  upon  it. 

The    Blairgowrie,    Rattray,    and    District    Water    Board 

obtain  their  supply  from  Loch  Benachally.  The  catchment 
area,  1920  acres,  between  1000  and  1622  feet  elevation, 
is  not  owned  by  the  Board,  who  control  only  the  water 
rights.  As  there  are  no  farm-steadings  or  habitations  on 
the  area,  which  is  devoted  to  sheep  grazing  and  grouse 
shooting,  no  measures  are  considered  necessary  against 
pollution  of  the  water,  which  is  passed  through  fine  screens 
on  leaving  the  loch,  and  through  sand  filters  before  reaching 
the  storage  tanks  at  Blairgowrie. 

Arbroath  obtains  its  water  supply  direct  from  the  river 
Noran  at  Glenogil,  Forfarshire.  The  catchment  area  above 
the  compensation  reservoir  is  4700  acres,  and  above  the 
intake  for  use  3600  acres,  all  moorland,  between  700  and 
900  feet  altitude,  of  which  three-fourths  are  covered  with 
larch  and  Scots  pine  plantations.  There  is  only  one 
habitation,  a  shepherd's  hut,  the  drainage  from  which  flows 
into  another  valley.  The  Town  Council  own  merely  the 
site  of  the  reservoir  and  intake  works,  30|-  acres,  purchased 
for  £3665.  The  water  comes  from  pure  mountain  springs, 
and  is  passed  through  copper  wire-woven  screens,  but  is 
not  otherwise  filtered.  The  annual  rainfall  averages 
35  inches. 

Kirriemuir  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  catchment 
area  of  820  acres,  at   950   to   2197  feet  altitude,  on  the 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND  281 

eastern  side  of  Cat  Law,  in  Kingoldrum  parish,  Forfarshire. 
The  water,  which  is  not  filtered,  comes  from  springs  in  the 
side  of  the  hill,  and  there  is  no  impounding  reservoir.  The 
area  is  grazed  by  sheep,  and  is  uninhabited,  treeless,  rocky 
ground,  mostly  covered  with  heather.  It  is  not  owned  by 
the  Town  Council,  who  have  the  usual  sanitary  powers 
conferred  by  common  law  and  statute.  The  annual  rainfall, 
varying  from  27  to  50  inches,  averages  35-33  inches. 

Brechin  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  catchment  area 
of  2200  acres,  between  600  and  2000  feet  altitude,  on 
Wirren  Hill,  in  the  Grampians,  all  heather-clad,  under 
sheep  grazing,  and  without  dwellings  of  any  kind.  There 
are  no  trees  on  the  area,  which  is  privately  owned,  the 
Town  Council  having  no  control  and  only  the  right  to 
the  water  and  the  pipe  track,  which  was  given  free  by  the 
owner.  There  is  no  storage  reservoir,  and  the  water  is  not 
filtered ;  but  no  trouble  as  regards  contamination  has  arisen 
since  the  supply  was  introduced  over  43  years  ago. 

Forfar  obtains  its  water-supply  from  the  Den  of  Ogil 
reservoir,  in  Tannadice  parish,  with  a  gathering  ground 
of  2977  acres,  lying  between  600  and  1615  feet  elevation, 
the  highest  point  being  St.  Arnolds.  The  Corporation  own 
33  acres.  The  gathering  ground  comprises  2677  acres 
of  hill  pasture  and  plantations,  and  300  acres  of  arable 
laud,  on  which  there  are  8  habitations  and  farm-steadings. 
The  water  is  screened  and  filtered,  but  no  other  measures 
are  taken  against  contamination. 

Dundee  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  catchment 
areas:  (1)  The  gathering  ground  feeding  the  Crombie, 
Monikie,  and  Brax  reservoirs  comprises  3643  acres,  all  at 
no  great  elevation,  the  highest  point  being  under  700  feet. 
The  Water  Commissioners,  in  order  to  preserve  the  water 
from  contamination,  have  taken  on  a  lease  of  99  years 
500  acres  of  arable  land  on  the  Crombie  area.  This  land, 
laid  down  in  grass,  reverts  to  moorland  in  a  few  years,  and 
could  be  utilised  more  profitably  if  planted  with  a   timber 


282  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

crop  like  larch,  that  would  come  to  maturity  in  50  or  60 
years.  (2)  The  Lintrathen  area  comprises  nearly  21,000 
acres  at  different  elevations,  as  follows : 


Above  1500  feet  elevation 
Between  1250  and  1500  feet . 
1000  and  1250  feet. 
Below  1000  feet 

3,800  acres. 
.      4,700     ,, 
.      3,738     „ 
.      8,700     „ 

Total  area 

.    20,938  acres. 

It  is  largely  composed  of  heather  and  old  pasture  land 
of  little  value.  About  1000  acres,  which  include  the  two 
arable  farms  that  formerly  existed  on  the  area,  have  been 
purchased  by  the  Corporation.  Of  this,  about  200  acres 
have  been  planted  with  larch,  spruce,  Scots  pine,  and 
Douglas  fir ;  while  the  rest  is  either  let  for  sheep  grazing 
or  is  laid  down  in  grass.  The  abolition  of  the  arable  land 
ensures  to  a  considerable  extent  the  purity  of  the  water 
drawn  from  the  Lintrathen  reservoir,  which  is  not  filtered ; 
but  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Geo.  Baxter,  the  engineer  in 
charge,  a  larger  measure  of  afforestation  would  be  desirable. 
See  p.  82,  and  Trans.  Boy.  Scot.  Arbor.  Soc.  xxiv.  191  (191 1). 

VII.    Inverness,  Ross,  and  Aberdeen  Counties 

Gathering  grounds,  6843  acres,  supplying  seven  local 
authorities  (acreage  of  Peterhead  gathering  ground  unknown 
and  not  included).  828  acres  owned  by  three  local 
authorities, 

Inverness  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Loch  Ashie, 
which  has  a  catchment  area  of  1335  acres  at  610  to 
700  feet  elevation.  The  gathering  ground,  over  which 
the  Corporation  have  no  control,  consists  of  moorland  and 
hill  pasture,  one-third  of  it  being  formerly  covered  with 
plantations,  which  were  cut  down  about  5  years  ago.  There 
are  now  no  habitations  or  farm  -  steadings  on  the  area. 
The  Corporation  took  over  as  tenants  the  solitary  croft 
that  existed  and  levelled  the  buildings,  the  croft  being  now 
only  used  for  sheep  grazing.  The  water  is  passed  through 
gravel  and  copper   screens.     G.  West,  in    his   account   of 


WATEE  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  SCOTLAND  283 

Loch  Ashie  in  Proc.  Boy.  Soc.  Edin.  vol.  25,  pt.  2,  p.  1009, 
Fig.  73  (1906),  says  that  the  country  on  the  east  side  is 
bleak,  dreary  moor,  but  on  the  west  side  the  shores  were 
then  clothed  with  coniferous  forest. 

Kingussie  is  reported  in  Journ.  Board  of  Agriculture,  xi. 
472  (1904),  to  own  a  catchment  area  of  300  acres,  hill 
pasture,  at  1500  feet  elevation.  Information  about  this 
water  supply  has  not  been  obtainable. 


Fig.  47. — Inverness,  Ross,  and  Aberdeen  Catchment  Areas. 


Tain  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a  gathering  ground 
of  3000  acres,  between  400  and  800  feet  elevation,  in  the 
Glen  of  Scotsburn  and  Hill  of  Tain.  There  is  one  house 
on  the  area,  of  which  210  acres  are  owned  by  the  Burgh. 
The  water  is  not  filtered,  and  no  precautions  against 
contamination  of  the  gathering  ground  are  considered 
necessary. 

Fraserburgh  has  two  catchment  areas.  The  Ardlaw 
area,  280  acres  at  100  to  150  feet  elevation,  collects 
underground  water  from  a  gravelly  subsoil  at  a  depth  of 


284  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

16  to  25  feet.  The  water  from  the  Fedderate  gathering 
ground,  which  is  760  acres  in  extent,  at  250  to  400  feet 
elevation,  is  treated  by  mechanical  filters.  The  Town 
Council  control  the  water  rights,  but  do  not  own  the  areas, 
which  are  partly  arable  and  partly  pasture  land. 

Turriff  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Barnyard  Estate, 
of  318  acres,  purchased  by  the  Burgh  in  1903  for  £6000, 
all  arable  land,  except  6  acres  of  plantations,  and  situated 
between  400  and  600  feet  elevation.  About  100  acres, 
as  well  as  the  main  buildings,  are  below  the  reservoir,  there 
being  only  a  small  house  and  steading  above  it.  The 
collecting  drains  are  10  feet  or  more  below  the  level  of 
the  ground ;  and  the  water  is  naturally  filtered  by  gravel 
before  reaching  the  drains.  No  surface  water  is  taken. 
The  Burgh  has  an  emergency  supply  from  a  collecting 
reservoir  on  Delgaty  Estate,  but  it  is  only  used  for  flushing 
drains,  except  in  rare  cases  of  severe  drought.  The  gather- 
ing ground  here  is  about  100  acres  in  extent,  and  is 
situated  at  less  than  350  feet  above  sea-level. 

Keith  obtains  its  water  supply  from  gathering  grounds, 
which  are  not  owned  by  the  Town  Council,  at  Balloch  Hill 
and  Cairney,  350  acres  in  extent,  between  743  and  783 
feet  elevation,  all  hill  pasture  except  50  acres  of  arable 
land.  The  water  is  entirely  derived  from  springs.  On 
Balloch  Hill  area  there  are  no  houses  or  farms,  and  the 
water  is  passed  through  filtering  screens.  On  Cairney  area 
there  are  several  farms  and  crofts,  and  the  water  is  passed 
through  gravel  filter  beds, 

Peterliead  obtains  its  water  supply  from  three  im- 
pounding reservoirs  at  Forehill,  with  a  total  capacity  of 
16,000,000  gallons.  The  gathering  grounds,  of  which 
the  Town  Council  only  own  about  8  acres,  are  mostly 
arable  land,  with  houses  and  farm-steadings,  and  are  situated 
between  130  and  200  feet  elevation.  The  water  is  collected 
in  pipes  from  streams  on  the  gathering  ground,  and  is 
passed  through  sand  filter  beds. 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  IN  SCOTLAND  285 

Inverurie  obtains  its  water  supply  from  deep  springs 
in  Baikie  Howe,  a  valley  about  8  miles  distant.  On  the 
gathering  ground,  500  acres  of  arable  land,  between  524 
and  800  feet  elevation,  there  are  four  small  farms  or  crofts 
with  steadings,  the  sanitary  arrangements  of  which  are 
inspected  from  time  to  time.  Inspection  chambers  are 
provided  at  each  spring,  and  the  water  is  passed  tlirough 
screens  and  sand  filters.  The  Burgh  owns  the  farm  of 
Mill  of  Eastertown,  202  acres  in  extent,  of  which  about 
30  acres  are  within  the  water  catchment  area.  The  water 
from  Baikie  Howe  is  distributed  from  Bransbutt  reservoir. 
The  old  supply  of  the  Burgh,  also  from  deep  springs,  is 
collected  in  the  Hillhead  reservoir,  which  is  used  now  in 
reserve. 


CHAPTER    XII 

WATER    CATCHMENT    AREAS    IN    IRELAND 

In  Ireland,  as  in  the  sister  countries,  the  water  supplies 
of  cities  and  towns  are  varied  in  origin.  Some  com- 
munities obtain  their  water  directly  from  the  large  rivers 
on  which  they  are  situated,  as  Cork  from  the  river  Lee, 
and  Limerick  from  the  Shannon.  Many  smaller  towns 
are  still  dependent  upon  local  pumps  and  wells,  or  upon 
springs.  In  this  chapter  notice  is  taken  only  of  the 
local  authorities  who  have  gathering  grounds,  as  such  areas 
might  in  most  cases  be  afforested  with  advantage  to  the 
purity  of  the  water  supply  and  to  the  health  of  the  popu- 
lation. No  official  description  of  the  water  supplies  of 
Irish  towns  has  been  published  ;  and  the  pamphlet  on 
this  subject  by  Sir  Charles  A.  Cameron,  published  in 
1885  (Fannin  &  Co.,  Dublin),  is  out  of  date.  In  the 
following  pages  information,  mostly  furnished  by  town 
surveyors,  is  given  concerning  the  gathering  grounds  of  5  7 
cities  and  towns  ;  but  the  acreage  of  ten  catchment  areas 
could  not  be  ascertained.  In  the  cases  of  ten  towns, 
those  marked  with  an  asterisk,  no  official  details  have  been 
obtainable,  though  application  was  made.  The  information 
cannot,  then,  claim  to  be  exhaustive  ;  nevertheless  it  is  of 
considerable  interest.  Summarised,  it  shows  that  47  cities 
and  towns  obtain  their  water  supplies  from  93,835  acres  of 
gathering  grounds ;  and  if  the  returns  were  complete,  the 
total  would  considerably  exceed  100,000  acres.  Muni- 
cipal ownership  of  such  lands  is  very  limited  in  Ireland, 
286 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  IN  IRELAND    287 

the  amount  disclosed  being  15,282  acres,  owned  by  nine 
local  authorities.  Only  three  of  these  own  a  considerable 
proportion  of  their  gathering  grounds,  namely,  Belfast, 
which  owns  13,746  acres;  Portadown  and  Banbridge 
Joint  Waterworks  Board,  which  owns  943  acres  ;  and 
Dublin,  which  owns  348  acres  in  addition  to  712  acres  of 
reservoir  sites.  The  portions  of  their  catchment  areas 
owned  by  Eathmines,  Drogheda,  Lisburn,  Holywood,  and 
Waterford  are  very  small.  Scarcely  any  afforestation  has 
been  attempted,  the  only  instances  of  municipal  effort  in 
this  direction  being  50  acres  of  old  and  5  acres  of  new 
plantations  on  the  Vartry  area,  belonging  to  the  Dublin 
Corporation,  and  50  acres  of  plantations  made  since  1900 
by  the  Urban  District  Council  of  Rathmines  on  their  catch- 
ment area  at  Glennasmol.  The  afforestation  of  the 
gathering  grounds  of  Ireland  cannot  be  effected  until  the 
areas  are  compulsorily  acquired  by  the  Urban  District 
Councils  and  other  local  authorities  concerned. 


I.  Ulster 

Gathering  grounds,  41,253  acres,  supplying  twenty-one 
local  authorities  and  one  private  owner  (acreage  of  Letter- 
kenny,  Keady,  and  Bally  money  gathering  grounds  unknown 
and  not  included).  14,752  acres  owned  by  four  local 
authorities. 

Belfast  obtains  its  water  supply  from  three  catchment 
areas,  as  follows : 

The  Woodburn  area,  3  to  4  miles  north-west  of  Carrick- 
fergus,  and  between  300  to  1000  feet  elevation,  contains 
6937  acres,  of  which  3657  acres,  formerly  farm  lands, 
were  acquired  by  the  Water  Commissioners  to  prevent 
pollution,  and  were  cleared  of  inhabitants,  being  now  only 
used  for  meadow  and  grazing.  About  70  acres  are 
wooded.  The  unpurchased  part  is  moorland  and  rough 
grazing. 

The    Stonyford  catchment  area,   5   miles  north-west  of 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  IRELAND    289 

Lisburn,  between  450  and  1085  feet  elevation,  contains 
5348  acres,  of  which  1365  acres  were  purchased  by  the 
Commissioners  and  depopulated,  being  now  used  for  meadow 
and  grazing.  The  unpurchased  part  is  moorland  and  rough 
mountain  grazing.  No  part  of  this  catchment  area  is 
wooded. 

The  Mourne  catchment  area,  33  miles  south  of  Belfast 
and  5  miles  from  Kilkeel,  at  450  to  2800  feet  elevation, 
in  the  Happy  Valley  of  the  Mourne  Mountains,  contains 
8724  acres,  all  of  which  has  been  purchased  by  the  Com- 
missioners. It  consists  of  steep,  treeless  mountain  slopes, 
without  dwellings,  on  which  only  a  few  sheep  can  be 
grazed,  and  is  above  the  agricultural  zone.  The  water  is 
filtered.  No  scheme  for  planting  has  been  proposed ;  and 
Mr.  R.  Hamilton,  Secretary,  considers  that  "  the  bare  rugged 
slopes  of  the  Mourne  area  are  incapable  of  being  used  with 
satisfactory  results  for  the  planting  of  trees." 

Lisburn  :  gathering  ground  in  Aghnahough,  Aghalislone, 
and  White  Mountain,  476  acres,  between  356  and  825 
feet  elevation,  comprising  279  acres  of  arable  land,  190 
acres  of  mountain  pasture,  and  7  acres  of  plantations,  with 
22  farmhouses  and  10  cottages.  The  Council  own  28^ 
acres,  all  arable.  "  The  streams  have  been  piped  at  points 
most  liable  to  surface  contamination,  and  receive  constant 
inspection  and  supervision.  There  is  no  risk  of  contamina- 
tion being  brought  by  flood  water  or  rains  into  the  storage 
reservoir,  which  is  situated  between  White  Mountain  and 
Lisburn.      The  water  supply  is  filtered." 

Ballymena  :  gathering  ground  on  Quolie  Mountain,  1723 
acres,  between  835  and  1250  feet  elevation,  all  mountain 
grazing,  without  habitations  or  plantations.  Council  own 
none  of  the  ground.  No  special  precautions  needed  against 
contamination. 

Ballymoney  :  from  Lake  Drumbest,  5  J  miles  distant,  at 
327  feet  elevation.  Council  own  only  the  bank  surround- 
ing the  lake.     The  water  is  not  filtered. 

U 


290    •        FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

Portrush  :  gathering  ground  of  350  acres,  all  arable 
land  and  pasture,  between  200  and  425  feet  elevation,  in 
the  townlands  of  Craigahulliar,  Knockertotan,  Slimag, 
Crossreagh,  and  Cor  bally.  There  are  8  dwelling-houses, 
with  farm-steadings  attached,  on  the  area,  no  part  of  which 
is  owned  by  the  Council.  "  There  are  many  springs  on  the 
area,  which  are  carefully  collected  and  piped  to  the  reservoir. 
The  drainage  from  some  of  the  arable  land  and  farm-stead- 
ings is  rejected.     Filtration  is  good." 

Portstewart :  gathering  ground  of  183^  acres  in  South 
Mullaghacall,  Garrylaban,  Cappagh  Beg,  East  Crossreagh, 
and  West  Tullaghmurry  townlands,  between  50  and  150 
feet  elevation,  all  arable  land  except  2  acres  of  plantations, 
with  two  farmhouses  upon  it.  No  special  measures  to 
prevent  contamination  are  taken  on  the  gathering  ground, 
none  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Council  ;  but  the  water  is 
filtered. 

Londonderry  *:    water  supply  from  three  sources  : 

1.  Creggan  Valley,  about  two  miles  west  of  the  city; 
three  reservoirs  ;  catchment  area  of  6  5  0  acres,  between  300 
and  700  feet  altitude,  all  agricultural  land,  with  a  number 
of  inhabited  houses. 

2.  Killea  Valley,  south-west  of  the  last ;  storage  reser- 
voir ;  catchment  area  of  456  acres,  largely  hill  grazing, 
but  with  some  arable  land. 

3.  Tamneymore,  south  of  the  city ;  two  storage  reser- 
voirs ;  supply  partly  from  springs  situated  in  agricultural 
land,  partly  from  perforated  subsoil  conduits  in  catchment 
areas. 

The  Corporation  appear  to  own  only  the  sites  of  the 
reservoirs.  All  reports  show  that  the  water  supply  is  of 
doubtful  quality,  the  areas  being  very  liable  to  con- 
tamination. 

The  Londonderry  Corporation  have  in  Parliament  during 
the  present  session  (1918)  a  scheme  for  obtaining  a  new 
water  supply  from  the  Glens  of  Banagher,  in  the  Sperrin 
Mountains.     It  is  proposed  to  construct  two  reservoirs,  one 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  IRELAND    291 

on  the  Glenedra  Water  and  the  other  on  the  Altnaheglish 
River,  not  far  above  the  point  where  they  unite  to  form  the 
Owenrigh  River.  The  excellent  catchment  area,  which  it  is 
proposed  to  acquire,  is  mountain  land,  free  from  habitations 
and  any  chance  of  contamination ;  and  is  situated  in  Carna- 
bane,  Templemoyle,  Glenedra,  and  Teeavan  townlands, 
comprising  the  basins  of  the  Glenedra  and  Altnaheglish 
Rivers,  and  ranging  in  elevation  from  about  700  feet  to 
2170  feet,  the  latter  being  the  altitude  of  Mullaghaneany. 

Buncrana  :  gathering  ground  of  250  acres,  at  250  to 
800  feet  elevation,  in  Gransha  townland,  all  mountain 
grazing,  with  one  dwelling-house ;  no  filtration.  Council 
own  none  of  the  ground. 

Letterkenny  :  new  supply  from  Lough  Salt,  a  lake  73 
acres  in  extent,  at  8 1 6  feet  elevation  ;  no  filtration  neces- 
sary. Council  own  none  of  the  catchment  area,  acreage  of 
which  is  not  stated. 

Holy  wood :  gathering  ground  of  424  acres  in  Ballykeel 
and  Holy  wood  townlands,  between  350  and  664  feet 
elevation,  comprising  380  acres  of  arable  land,  30  acres  of 
moss  and  rough  grazing,  and  14  acres  of  copse  and 
shrubbery  in  a  glen.  There  are  9  dwelling-houses,  all 
with  farm-steadings,  on  the  gathering  ground.  The  Council 
own  35  acres,  and  the  measures  against  contamination 
include  "  collection  of  overflows  from  farmyards  and  irriga- 
tion of  the  lands  farthest  from  the  main  feeders." 

Bangor  obtains  its  water  supply  from  two  gathering 
grounds  : 

(1)  Helen's  Tower  area,  330  acres,  between  213  and 
400  feet  elevation,  comprising  80  acres  of  mountain  grazing 
and  250  acres  of  plantations,  with  one  dwelling-house  upon 
it.  (2)  Bally sallagh  area,  1026  acres,  between  277  and 
600  feet  elevation,  comprising  900  acres  of  arable  land,  26 
acres  of  hill  pasture,  and  100  acres  of  plantations,  with  2  5 
dwelling-houses  upon  it.     The  Council  own  no  part  of  the 


292  rOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

two  areas,  which  "  are  kept  clean.     During  heavy  rains  no 
water  is  allowed  to  get  into  Ballysallagh  reservoir." 

Newcastle  (Co.  Down)  obtains  its  water  supply  from  a 
gathering  ground  of  500  acres,  between  800  and  2515 
feet  elevation,  in  Ballaghbeg,  embracing  the  upper  1^  mile 
of  the  Glen  Eiver,  and  all  mountain  grazing,  without  habi- 
tations or  plantations.  The  water,  coming  off  a  granite 
formation,  is  very  pure,  and  is  piped  from  the  intake  at  the 
800  feet  contour  line  to  the  service  closed  reservoir  in 
Donard  demesne.  The  water  supply  and  gathering  ground 
belong  to  Lady  Mabel  M.  Annesley. 

Portadown  and  Banbridge  Joint  Waterworks  Board  obtain 
their  supply  from  a  gathering  ground  of  943  acres,  be- 
tween 900  and  2300  feet  elevation,  in  the  townlands  of 
Eofannyreagh,  Fofannybane,  Moyad,  and  Cock  Mountain 
Common  in  the  Mourne  Mountains.  The  headwaters  of  the 
Shimna  Eiver  are  collected  off  this  area  by  a  dam  thrown 
across  the  river  at  Deer's  Meadow  in  Eofannyreagh,  forming 
a  storage  reservoir,  with  a  capacity  of  75,000,000  gallons. 
The  Board  own  the  entire  area,  which  is  all  mountain 
grazing,  without  habitations  or  plantations.  One  of  the 
streams  supplying  the  reservoir  is  diverted  past  it  in  time 
of  floods,  being  slightly  peaty.  The  water  is  not  filtered. 
The  lower  part  of  the  gathering  ground  might  possibly  be 
afforested ;  but  it  is  composed,  according  to  Mr.  E.  H. 
Dorman,  M.Inst.C.E.,  of  steep  and  barren  slopes  of  very 
little  value  even  for  sheep  grazing.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  is  estimated  at  70  inches.  See  Proc.  Assoc.  Muni- 
cipal aiul  County  Engineers,  vol.  xxxiii.  pp.  133-143 
(1907). 

Warrenpoint:  supply  from  gathering  ground  of  2694 
acres  in  the  townlands  of  Mourne  Mountains  West,  Eostrevor 
Mountains,  Killowen  Mountains,  and  Kilfeaghan  Upper, 
between  500  and  1800  feet  elevation,  all  mountain  grazing. 
None  of  the  area,  which  is  uninhabited,  is  owned  by  the 
Council.     It  is  free  from  contamination,  and  the  water  is 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN   IRELAND    293 

not  filtered.      The  impounding  reservoir  is  9  miles  distant 
from  Warrenpoint. 

Newry  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Camlough  Lake, 
with  a  catchment  area  of  3407  acres,  between  320  and 
1385  feet  elevation,  situated  in  the  townlands  of  Carrick- 
bracken.  Cross,  Keggall,  Ballinliss,  Seafin,  Tamnaghbane, 
Ballynalack,  Aghmakane,  Sturgan,  and  Carrickcloghan  in 
Co.  Armagh.  The  greater  part  of  the  area  is  mountain 
pasture,  with  100  acres  of  plantations  ;  but  a  considerable 
portion  is  arable  land  with  a  good  many  dwelling-houses 
upon  it.  As  the  area  of  the  lake  is  120  acres,  with  a 
storage  capacity  of  600,000,000  gallons,  it  was  supposed 
at  first  that  the  storage  capacity  was  sufficient  to  purify 
the  water  without  filtration ;  and  at  present  the  water  is 
not  filtered.  Of  recent  years  the  conditions  have  changed, 
and  a  filtration  scheme  which  was  submitted  to  the 
Council  by  the  Town  Surveyor  is  held  in  abeyance  by  the 
war.     The  Council  own  none  of  the  catchment  area. 

Armagh :  gathering  ground  of  2  5  6  acres  in  Drumbee 
Beg,  Drumbee  More,  Edenknappagh,  and  Killeen  townlands, 
between  390  and  410  feet  elevation,  consisting  of 
128  acres  of  the  Drumbee  bog  and  128  acres  of  arable 
land,  with  13  cottages  upon  it.  These  houses  have  earth 
and  dry  closets.  The  water  lying  in  the  Drumbee  bog  is 
conveyed  both  by  pipes  and  by  an  open  water  course  to 
Lowry's  Lake,  having  a  surface  area  of  26  acres,  which 
forms  a  storage  reservoir.  The  water  taken  from  the  lake 
is  filtered  before  reaching  the  town. 

Keady  :  water  supply  from  Clay  Lake  ;  catchment  area, 
605  feet  elevation;  acreage  unknown;  entirely  arable 
land  and  pasture  land  with  three  or  four  farmhouses 
upon  it.  No  measures  are  taken  on  the  area  against 
contamination. 

Dungannon :  gathering  ground  of  1500  acres,  between 
527  and  735  feet  elevation,  in  Altmore  and  Knocknaclogha 
townlands,  comprising  400  acres  of  arable  land,  1080  acres 


294  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

of  mountain  grazing,  and  20  acres  of  plantations.  There 
are  11  dwelling-houses,  a  school,  and  a  church  upon  the 
gathering  ground,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Council. 
"  Contaminated  water  is  either  conveyed  in  concrete 
channels  past  the  reservoir  and  discharged  on  grass  land 
or  is  piped  into  Altmore  stream,  which  passes  the  reservoir." 

Omagh :  gathering  ground  of  1600  acres,  between 
450  and  1500  feet  elevation  in  Boheragh,  Glenhordial, 
Crosh,  Belnagilly,  and  Faccary  townlands,  all  mountain 
grazing,  and  with  only  one  habitation,  a  herd's  house,  upon 
it.  No  measures  against  contamination  are  deemed  necessary 
on  the  gathering  ground,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the 
Council. 

Strabane  :  gathering  ground  of  1780  acres,  between  450 
and  500  feet  elevation,  in  Calheme,  Knockavoe,  Evish,  and 
Cavanalee  townlands,  comprising  1280  acres  of  mountain 
gracing  and  500  acres  of  arable  land,  with  52  dwelling- 
houses  upon  it.  No  measures  are  taken  against  contamination 
of  the  gathering  ground,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the 
Council.  Settling  tanks  and  filtration  are  used  at  the 
waterworks  near  the  town. 

Monaghan :  gathering  ground  of  813  acres,  in  Togan, 
Ballagh,  Drumsheeny,  Gortnana,  Leek,  Corcaghan,  Greagh, 
Cavanagarvan,  Tattinclieve,  Blackraw,  and  Drumlinny  town- 
lands,  between  460  and  600  feet  elevation,  comprising 
100  acres  of  mountain  grazing  and  713  acres  of  arable 
land,  with  about  2  5  farmers'  dwelling  -  houses.  The 
Council  own  none  of  the  land  on  the  area,  but  have 
purchased  one  house  to  prevent  contamination.  A  caretaker 
is  employed  to  guard  against  contamination,  and  legal 
proceedings  are  instituted  when  necessary. 

Clones:  gathering  ground  of  120  acres  in  Carnroe, 
between  300  and  400  feet  elevation,  comprising  70  acres 
of  arable  land,  40  acres  of  hill  grazing,  and  10  acres  of 
plantations,  and  with  three  dwelling-houses  on  it.  The 
supply  is  piped  beyond  these  houses  to  prevent  sewage  from 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  IRELAND    295 

the  farmsteads  getting  into  the  reservoir.      The  Council  own 
only  3  acres. 

Castleblayney :  gathering  ground  of  9  3  acres,  all  arable 
land,  in  Corravoo,  Cargaghdoo,  and  Annagleve  townlands, 
between  645  and  705  feet  elevation.  The  Council  own 
only  the  reservoir  site,  about  1  acre.  On  the  area  there 
are  5  farmhouses,  the  sewage  from  which  is  drained  out- 
side it. 

Enniskillen :  gathering  ground  of  400  acres,  in  Bally- 
doolagh,  Cooltrain,  Lissan,  and  Largy  townlands,  between 
443  and  701  feet  elevation,  comprising  56  acres  of 
mountain  grazing,  whins,  and  bog,  and  344  acres  of  arable 
land,  with  11  occupied  houses,  there  being  6  whole  farms 
and  14  portions  of  farms  on  the  area.  The  water  is  not 
filtered,  but  is  passed  through  gauze  screens  at  a  sluice- 
house  close  to  the  lake  (or  storage  reservoir),  and  again 
through  gauze  screens  at  the  service  reservoir,  one  mile 
distant.  No  special  precautions  are  taken  against  contamina- 
tion on  the  gathering  ground,  of  which  only  1 1  acre  is  owned 
by  the  Council. 

Cavan :  gathering  ground  of  270  acres  in  Beaghy, 
Shankill  Lower,  Corranure,  Stragelliff,  Drumcrauve,  Billis, 
and  Corragho  townlands,  between  324  and  465  feet 
elevation,  all  arable  land,  except  10  acres  of  mountain 
grazing,  and  with  20  farmhouses  upon  it.  The  Council 
own  only  6  acres,  being  a  swamp  in  which  water  is  stored 
at  a  high  level  for  the  purpose  of  scraping  the  mains  by 
pressure.  No  special  measures  are  taken  on  the  gathering 
ground  to  prevent  contamination,  but  the  water  is  screened 
at  the  inlet  house,  and  filtered  near  the  town  where  there 
is  a  reservoir. 

II.  Leinster 

Gathering  grounds,  29,290  acres,  supplying  eight  local 
authorities  (acreage  of  Drogheda,  Tullamore,  and  Wexford 
gathering    grounds    unknown    and    not    included).       418 


296  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TKEES 

acres     (reservoirs     not     included)    owned    by    three    local 
authorities. 

Dublin  obtains  its  water  supply  from  the  Eoundwood 
reservoir  in  Co.  Wicklow,  which  is  situated  on  the  Vartry 
Eiver,  at  an  elevation  of  693  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
catchment  area,  13,700  acres  in  extent,  consists  mainly  of 
a  plateau  between  700  and  900  feet  elevation,  but  extends 
on  the  west  to  a  chain  of  mountains  ranging  from  1580  to 
2384  feet,  the  highest  point  being  the  summit  of  Douce, 
while  on  the  east  it  ascends  to  a  ridge  varying  between 
800  and  1200  feet  elevation.  The  Corporation  own 
550  acres  here,  comprising  the  reservoir  with  409  acres  of 
water  surface  and  141  acres  of  filter  beds  and  other 
adjoining  laud.  A  second  reservoir,  in  course  of  construction 
on  the  river  Vartry  higher  up,  has  a  gathering  ground  of 
9000  acres,  being  part  of  the  13,700  acres  already  mentioned, 
as  the  catchment  area  has  not  been  increased.  The 
Corporation  have  acquired  here  510  acres,  comprising  the 
site  of  the  new  reservoir,  which  will  have  303  acres  of 
water  surface  and  207  acres  of  adjoining  land.  The  catch- 
ment area,  mainly  hill  pasture  and  moorland,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  arable  land,  is  sparsely  populated,  the 
few  dwellings  being  small  farmhouses  or  labourers'  cottages, 
with  no  drainage  system.  The  village  of  Eoundwood  is 
technically  within  the  catchment  area,  but  the  entire 
drainage  is  intercepted  and  diverted  by  an  open  cutting, 
which  discharges  into  the  river  Vartry  below  the  filter  beds. 
The  Corporation  have  had  under  consideration  the  desirability 
of  acquiring  the  whole  catchment  area,  but  it  was  considered 
unnecessary  to  do  so.  "  The  Vartry  water  is  very  pure. 
It  is  chemically  examined  every  day,  and  the  results  rarely 
show  any  variation,  the  highest  standard  of  purity  being 
maintained." 

On  the  land  owned  by  the  Corporation  around  the  old 
reservoir  50  acres  of  plantations  were  made  about  45 
years  ago.  These  have  been  very  valuable  for  shelter  and 
ornament.      The  timber  is  now  coming  into  use  for  fencing, 


298  FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

gates,  and  other  purposes.  A  nursery,  two  acres  in  extent, 
has  recently  been  established.  A  scheme  for  planting 
146  acres  on  the  grounds  of  the  new  reservoir  has  been 
sanctioned  by  the  Waterworks  Committee  of  the  Corporation, 
and  about  5  acres  have  been  planted  up  to  date.  It  was 
stated  in  the  Freeman  s  Journal,  1st  August  1913,  that  "  an 
afforestation  application  had  been  made  to  the  Development 
Commissioners  for  funds  for  the  afforestation  of  the  water 
catchment  area  at  Eoundwood " ;  but  I  can  obtain  no 
confirmation  of  this.  An  account  of  the  Eoundwood  Water- 
works, with  map  of  the  catchment  area,  by  J.  G.  O'Sullivan, 
appeared  in  Trans.  In^t.  C.E.,  Ireland,  xxxiv.  pp.  94-120 
(1908). 

Rathmines  and  Rathgar  Urban  District  Council  have  a 
gathering  ground  of  7000  acres  in  the  Dublin  Mountains, 
in  the  Glennasmol  Valley,  comprising  the  headwaters  of 
the  river  Dodder  and  its  tributaries,  the  Slade  and  Cot 
Brooks,  and  situated  in  AUagour,  Ballymorefinn,  Glassa- 
vullaun,  Castlekelly,  Cunard,  Glassamucky,  and  Piperstown 
townlands,  extending  from  about  600  feet  up  to  2472  feet, 
the  summit  of  Kippure  Mountain.  The  gathering  ground 
is  made  up  of  two  distinct  areas:  an  upper  area  of  4000 
acres,  practically  all  moorland,  covered  with  peat  and  large 
boulders,  the  supply  from  which  is  used  only  for  compensa- 
tion water  to  millowners  along  the  river  Dodder.  On  this 
area  there  are  three  farm-steadings,  with  one  dwelling-house 
and  a  shooting-lodge.  The  lower  area,  3000  acres  in 
extent,  consists  of  bare  mountain  slopes  free  from  peat  and 
only  suitable  for  grazing,  but  has  65  farm-steadings,  with  a 
dwelling-house  attached  to  each,  upon  it.  It  is  off  the 
latter  area  that  clear  water  is  collected  into  the  upper 
reservoir  (at  578  feet  elevation)  for  drinking  purposes. 
The  lower  or  millowners'  compensation  reservoir  has  a  top- 
water  level  of  495  feet  elevation.  The  service  reservoir  at 
Ballyboden  with  filter  beds  is  at  an  elevation  of  327  feet. 
See  map  and  description  of  these  waterworks  by  E.  P. 
Dixon,    M.Inst.C.E.,    in    British    Association    Handhooh    to 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  IRELAND    299 

Dublin,  pp.  392,  393  (1908).  Mr.  Dixon  gives  the  acre- 
age of  the  catchment  area  as  follows:  Upper  area,  4340 
acres ;  lower  area,  3250  acres ;  or  a  total  of  7590  acres. 
The  Council  own  between  50  and  60  acres  at  the  lower 
level  of  the  gathering  ground.  "  The  measures  taken 
against  contamination  are  regular  inspection  of  streams, 
cleaning  catch  water  channels  and  keeping  these  free  of 
vegetation  and  debris,  and  provision  of  pipe  drains  separat- 
ing the  farm  drainage  from  the  spring  water."  The  Council, 
beginning  in  1900,  have  planted  nearly  50  acres,  about 
80,000  larch,  pine,  alder,  and  birch  trees  being  used.  The 
timber  is  already  valuable,  some  of  the  trees  having  been 
cut  down  and  employed  for  fencing  as  required. 

Dundalk :  gathering  ground  of  1200  acres  in  Bally- 
makellett  and  Doolargy  townlands,  in  the  Carlingford 
Mountains,  between  400  and  1563  feet  elevation,  all 
mountain  pasture  and  moorland,  except  50  acres  of  arable 
land,  which  has  four  houses  upon  it.  The  Council  own  the 
river  beds  and  the  valve  towers  only.  The  gathering 
ground  is  regularly  patrolled  by  a  water  keeper,  and  the 
water  is  stored  in  a  reservoir  of  32,500,000  gallons 
capacity. 

Drogheda :  gathering  ground  in  Slate  Hill,  Tullyeskar, 
Barnattin,  and  Killineer  townlands,  two  miles  N.N.W.  of 
Drogheda,  acreage  not  ascertained,  all  arable  land  with  five 
farmhouses  upon  it.  The  Council  own  only  10  acres 
around  the  reservoirs,  of  which  5  acres  have  been  recently 
planted.  The  Council  have  not  control  over  the  gathering 
ground ;  but  the  water  is  filtered,  and  there  is  a  special 
sewage  system  for  Barnattin  hamlet, 

Longford  * :  supply  from  stream  at  Lisfarrell,  315  feet 
elevation,  with  a  gathering  ground  of  600  acres  of  arable 
land  and  pasture  lands,  with  several  farmhouses  upon  it. 
Pond  and  filters. 

TuUamore  * :  supply  from  Clodiagh  River  at  Clonaslee, 
400    feet    altitude.      Large    catchment    area,    acreage    un- 


300  FORESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 

known,   of  arable   and   pasture   land,    with   several   houses 
upon  it.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Birr  * :  supply  from  the  headwaters  of  Camcor  River  in 
Ballyshane  townland,  at  394  feet  elevation.  Catchment 
area  of  2490  acres,  two-thirds  being  mountain  pasture,  with 
nine  houses,  the  drains  of  which  are  intercepted.  The 
Council  own  none  of  the  ground.      The  water  is  filtered. 

Kilkenny:  gathering  ground  of  2700  acres  north-east 
of  the  city,  in  Gaulstown,  Cloghpook,  Wildfield,  and  Knock- 
major  townlands,  between  500  and  1000  feet  elevation, 
consisting  of  400  acres  of  arable  land  and  2300  acres  of 
mountain  grazing,  with  20  farmsteads  upon  it.  The  drain- 
age of  the  5  farmsteads  nearest  the  reservoir  on  the  main 
stream  is  intercepted  and  passed  through  a  tank  and  over 
grassland  before  entering  the  stream.  The  Council  own 
none  of  the  land. 

Carlow  * :  reservoir  on  Killeshin  stream  in  Keeloge 
townland,  Queen's  County,  3  miles  west  of  Carlow,  at  240 
feet  elevation ;  catchment  area  of  700  acres,  with  14  houses 
upon  it.  The  Council  own  none  of  the  land.  The  water 
is  filtered. 

New  Ross:  gathering  ground  of  900  acres,  all  mountain 
grazing  without  habitations,  between  400  and  1080  feet 
elevation  on  Dranagh  Mountain  and  Bantry  Commons,  on 
the  headwaters  of  the  river  Drummin.  The  Council  own 
none  of  the  ground,  which  is  practically  all  common  land. 
There  is  no  risk  of  contamination,  and  the  water  is  filtered. 

Wexford*:  supply  from  reservoir  on  stream  at  Coles- 
town,  at  263  feet  elevation,  2|-  miles  west  of  the  town. 
No  other  information  obtainable. 


III.    MUNSTER 

Gathering    grounds,    16,152    acres,   supplying    fourteen 
local  authorities   (acreage  of  Thurles,   Mallow,  and   Ennis 


WATER  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  IRELAND    301 

gathering  grounds  unknown  and  not  included).      One  hun- 
dred and  twelve  acres  owned  by  two  local  authorities. 

Nenagh :  gathering  ground  of  about  4000  acres,  on  the 
headwaters  of  the  Newtown  River,  between  300  and  1517 
feet  elevation,  extending  from  the  reservoir  east  of  Pallas 
More,  westward  to  Tountinna  Mountain,  and  comprising 
2400  acres  of  arable  land  in  grass,  1500  acres  of  mountain 
pasture,  and  100  acres  of  plantations.  There  are  12 
dwelling-houses  on  the  gathering  ground,  all  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  stream ;  and  in  the  opinion  of  the 
County  Surveyor  the  area  is  so  free  from  pollution  that  the 
water  supply  does  not  require  filtration.      The  Council  own 


Templemore :  supply  from  Kilduff  stream  at  672  feet 
elevation ;  gathering  ground  of  1000  acres,  between  700 
and  1200  feet  elevation,  comprising  900  acres  of  mountain 
grazing  and  100  acres  of  plantations,  with  four  dwelling- 
houses.  Intercepting  drains  at  Kilwardy  House  discharge 
below  the  reservoir.  The  Council  own  none  of  the  gather- 
ing ground.      The  water  is  filtered. 

Thurles  :  supply  from  small  stream  and  adjoining  springs 
in  Knockalough  townland,  7  miles  west  of  the  town,  at 
975  feet  elevation ;  area  of  gathering  ground  unknown. 
The  Council  own  2^  acres.     The  water  is  filtered. 

Tipperary :  gathering  ground  from  springs  at  1952  feet 
elevation  in  Galtee  Mountains,  oozing  from  a  moraine 
beside  a  lake  ;  catchment  area  20  acres,  not  owned  by  the 
Council.  Water  very  pure  and  no  risk  of  contamination. 
Large  plantation  below  the  gathering  ground. 

Carrick-on-Suir :  gathering  ground  of  400  acres  in 
Comeragh  Mountains,  Co.  Waterford,  at  Crotty's  Lake, 
between  700  and  2400  feet  elevation,  all  mountain  pasture, 
without  dwelling-houses  or  farmsteads.  Only  six  well 
sites,  covering  less  than  ^  acre,  are  owned  by  the  Council. 
The  supply  is  from  springs,  and  no  filtration  is  required. 


302  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

Waterford :  gathering  ground  of  2400  acres  in  Carrick- 
philip,  Knockaderry,  Cronolish,  Caheruane,  Ballyleen, 
Ballyrobin,  Coolrattin,  Smoor,  and  Ballycraddock  town- 
lands  ;  all  arable  land  (except  60  acres  of  turf  bog),  between 
224  and  510  feet  elevation.  The  Borough  own  82  acres 
under  reservoir  at  Knockaderry  and  plantations.  There 
are  14  farm  holdings  and  labourers'  cottages  on  the  gather- 
ing ground.  The  farms  have  the  right  of  water  for  cattle, 
so  special  precautions  against  contamination  are  not 
taken. 

Dungarvan*:  intake  from  stream  at  194  feet  elevation, 
with  gathering  ground  of  675  acres  in  Glendiue  Mountain 
in  Ballintoor  and  Deelish  townlands,  mountain  grazing  with 
one  house  upon  it.  The  Council  own  none  of  the  land. 
The  water  is  filtered. 

Youghal :  gathering  ground  of  1077  acres,  7  miles  dis- 
tant, in  Coolbeggan  townland,  between  400  and  500  feet 
elevation,  comprising  977  acres  of  mountain  grazing  and 
100  acres  of  arable  land.  The  Council  own  only  the  site 
of  the  filter  beds,  about  ^  acre.  There  are  5  or  6  farm- 
steads on  the  gathering  ground,  but  the  danger  of  con- 
tamination from  these  is  said  to  be  slight,  owing  to  the 
small  proportion  of  arable  land  and  the  great  extent  of 
poorly  grazed  mountain  waste,  with  marshy  land  in  the 
valley. 

Middleton :  gathering  ground  of  2481  acres  in  Bally- 
nakilla,  Ballynabrannagh,  Ballyvatta,  Clash,  Condonstown, 
Dooneen,  Glengarriff,  and  Leamlara  townlands,  between  200 
and  600  feet  elevation,  all  arable  land,  except  10  acres  of 
plantations.  There  are  35  dwelling-houses  and  64  farm 
holdings  on  the  area,  none  of  which  is  owned  by  the 
Council.  No  measures  are  taken  against  contamination  on 
the  gathering  ground,  but  the  water  is  filtered. 

Queenstown:  gathering  ground  of  476  acres  in  Cloneen, 
Tibbotstown,  and  Ballynakilla  townlands,  north  of  Carrigto- 
hill,  between  415  feet  (level  of  the  reservoir)  and  527  feet 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AEEAS  IN  IRELAND    303 

elevation,  comprising  370  acres  of  arable  land,  74  acres  of 
boggy  land,  15  acres  of  plantations,  and  16  acres  under 
water.  On  the  gathering  ground,  none  of  which  is  owned 
by  the  Council  except  the  16  acres  of  reservoir  sites,  there 
are  2  labourers'  cottages  and  11  farmsteads,  with  59  in- 
habitants. The  water  leaves  the  reservoirs  through  copper 
screens,  and  passes  by  pipes  to  the  filter  beds.  No  special 
measures  are  taken  on  the  gathering  ground  against  con- 
tamination. 

Fermoy :  supply  from  a  stream  which  enters  the  reser- 
voir (450  feet  elevation)  and  filter  beds  at  Knockananig, 
three  miles  S.E.  of  the  town.  Supplemental  supply  from 
Glashnahall  Eiver,  intake  at  Coolinny  (539  feet  elevation), 
with  1000  acres  of  gathering  ground.  The  Urban  District 
Council  own  here  as  freehold  about  30  acres  of  uncultivated 
ground,  said  to  be  suitable  for  planting  trees. 

Mallow:  supply  from  Fiddane  stream  at  485  feet 
elevation,  in  Ballinvuskig  townland,  about  2^  miles  S.E. 
of  the  town.  The  catchment  area  consists  of  arable  and 
pasture  land,  the  acreage  of  which  is  unknown.  The 
reservoir  and  adjoining  land,  about  1:^  acres,  on  which  it 
is  proposed  to  construct  filter  beds,  are  owned  by  the 
Urban  District  Council.  "  The  reservoir  is  cleaned  out 
every  four  years." 

Buttevant :  supply  from  intake  at  640  feet  elevation  on 
Streamhill  Mountain,  with  5 -inch  delivery  pipe  to  reservoir, 
^  mile  distant  from  the  town.  Catchment  area  extensive, 
acreage  unknown.  The  Mallow  Rural  District  Council  own 
only  intake  works  and  reservoir,  about  ^  acre  in  all. 

Tralee :  gathering  ground  of  1340  acres  in  Curraheen 
and  Derrymore  East  townlands,  between  200  and  2750 
feet  elevation,  all  mountain  grazing,  without  habitations  or 
plantations.  The  Council  own  only  the  sites  of  the  intakes, 
reservoirs,  and  filters ;  and  no  precautions  are  considered 
necessary  on  the  gathering  ground  except  inspection  after 
floods  to  remove  dead  sheep,  etc.     Efforts  have  been  made 


304  FOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 

to  induce  the  Council  to  acquire  the  land  and  plant  it 
with  trees,  but  legal  and  financial  obstacles,  as  well  as 
apathy,  have  prevented  any  steps  being  taken,  though 
on  the  catchment  area  there  are  extensive  mountain 
tracts  of  land  said  to  be  suitable  for  nothing  else  but 
afforestation. 

Killorglin :  water  supply  from  Loch  Cummernamuck, 
with  a  catchment  area  of  250  acres,  between  421  and 
600  feet  elevation,  all  mountain  grazing,  without  habita- 
tions or  plantations.  The  water  supply  is  under  control 
of  the  Killarney  Eural  District  Council  and  a  Waterworks 
Committee  in  Killorglin,  who  own  only  the  site  of  the 
reservoir,  and  have  rights  and  wayleaves  for  pipes  and 
works.  Cattle  have  access  to  the  intake,  and  the  supply 
is  said  to  be  unsatisfactory. 

Killarney  :  water  supply  from  Devil's  Punch  Bowl  Lake, 
at  2206  feet  elevation  on  Mangerton,  the  intake  being  on 
a  stream  in  Ferta  townland,  550  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  town,  with  a  catchment  area  of  914  acres,  all  mountain 
grazing,  without  habitations  or  plantations.  The  Council 
have  a  right  to  the  water  from  the  lake,  but  own  none 
of  the  catchment  area.  No  precautions  are  considered 
necessary,  as  there  are  screens  at  the  intake  to  exclude 
leaves,  etc.,  from  getting  into  the  pipes,  which  lead  to  the 
service  reservoir  and  filters.  It  is  a  perfectly  pure  and 
ample  supply. 

Cahlrciveen :  gathering  ground  of  120  acres  on  Carhau 
Mountain,  south-east  of  the  town,  between  373  feet  (level 
of  the  intake)  and  1000  feet  elevation,  all  mountain  grazing 
and  without  habitations  or  plantations.  The  Eural  District 
Council  own  the  site  of  the  reservoir  and  intake,  and  have 
purchased  water  rights  and  wayleaves  on  the  mountain. 
Covered  drains  convey  the  water  from  the  springs  on  the 
gathering  ground  to  the  intake,  but  the  springs  are  liable 
to  be  interfered  with  by  grazing  cattle.  The  area  is  said 
to   be   suitable  for  afforestation,  and   the  pipes  from  the 


WATEK  CATCHMENT  AREAS  IN  IRELAND    305 

intake  pass  throiigli  Carhan  Wood,  which  has  lately  been 
cut  down. 

Ennis*:  supply  from  stream  at  Bally macaula  at  228 
feet  elevation.  Gathering  ground  of  tillage  and  pasture  land 
at  a  low  elevation.      Other  particulars  not  obtainable. 


IV.    CONNAUGHT 

Gathering  grounds,  7140  acres,  supplying  three  local 
authorities  (acreage  of  Castlebar  gathering  ground  unknown 
and  not  included).     Nil  acres  owned  by  local  authorities. 

Bundoran :  gathering  ground  of  140  acres,  at  800  to 
1000  feet  elevation,  in  Aghavoghill  townland,  Co.  Leitrim; 
all  mountain  grazing ;  no  habitations ;  Council  own  none 
of  the  ground. 

Sligo  *  :  supply  from  Kilsellagh,  at  3  9  5  feet  elevation  ; 
gathering  ground  of  2000  acres  of  arable  land  and  pasture 
land,  with  40  houses  upon  it.     Pond  and  filters. 

Ballina :  gathering  ground  of  5000  acres  in  the  Ox 
Mountains,  between  136  and  1000  feet  elevation,  in  Graffy, 
Lissardmore,  Ellaghmore,  Ellaghbeg,  and  Bunnyconnellan 
townlands.  The  gathering  ground  comprises  1800  acres  of 
arable  land  and  3200  acres  of  mountain  grazing,  with  about 
130  farmsteads  upon  it.  None  of  the  land  is  owned  by  the 
Council,  and  no  measures  are  taken  against  contamination. 

Castlebar :  supply  from  river  and  springs  in  Ardvarney 
townland  at  300  feet  elevation ;  gathering  ground  exten- 
sive, but  with  few  houses.  The  river  is  fenced  near  the 
intake,  and  the  water  is  filtered.  The  Council  own  none 
of  the  area. 


INDEX 


Abies  graudis,  130 
Abies  nobilis,  93,  130 
Abies  pectinata,  128 
Acacia,  so-called,  50,  169 
Acer,  species  of,  51,  156 
Aesculus,  species  of,  51 
Afforestation  of  pit  mounds,  59 
Afforestation     of    water    catchment 

areas,  71,  105 
Agrarian  zone,  106 
Ailanthus  glandulosa,  50 
Air  of  forests,  1 6 
Air,  pure  bracing,  17 
Alder,  common,  63,  154 
Alder,  grey  or  white,  68,  155 
Alnus,  species  of,  63,  68,  154,  155 
Altitude  and  cultivation,  117 
Altitude  and  planting,  115 
Altitude,  effect  on  trees,  113 
Ardgoil  Estate,  41 
Ash,  50,  119,  149 
Ashgill  Plantation,  115,  138 
Aspen,  166 

Bacteria  in  air  of  forests,  1 7 

Barr,  W.,  19 

Bates,  C.  G.,  12 

Baxter,  George,  81,  282 

Beech,  47,  98,  119,  147 

Betts,  Norman  D.  W.,  11 

Betula,  species  of,  163 

Birch,  49,  63,  162 

Birmingham  parks,  35 

Black  Country,  59 

Board  of  Agriculture,  S6,  103 

Boodle,  L.  A.,  19 

Bournemouth  pine   jJautations,   24 

126 
Bracken  fern,  15,  108 
Broad -leaved  trees,  119,  120,  147 
Brompton  Hospital  Sanatorium,  22 


Cairns  covered  by  peat,  19 

Camps  afforestation  scheme,  27,  261 

Castanea,  157 

Catalpa,  53 

Chestnut,  157 

Chittenden,  H.  M.,  2 

Cholera,  forests  free  from,  17 

Church,  J.  E.,  5 

Climate,  forests  and,  1 

Climate,     optimum,     in     Neolithic 

period,  19 
Common  land,  39,  103,  107 
Conifer  forests  and  tuberculosis,  22 
Conifer  j^lantations,  120,  148 
Conifers  in  towns,  54 
Conifers  for  planting,  119,  123 
Cotton  grass  moor.  111 
Cricket-bat  willow,  168 
Cupressus  lawsoniana,  19,  146 
Cupressus  macrocarpa,  19,  146 

Dairy  farms  and  shelter  belts,  18,  19 
Deschampsia  flexuosa,  108 
Development  Commissioners,  31,  62, 

79,    89,    103,    188,    228,    239, 

267,  298 
Dobell,  Dr.  Horace,  23,  25 
Don  and  Chisholm,  19 
Douglas  fir,  42,  94,  98,  131 
Doulton  Road  Schools,  64 
Draining  effected  by  forests,  16 

Ebermayer,  15,  17 
Elms,  52,  159 
Eriophorum,  111 
Erosion  of  soil  and  forests,  1 ,  7 
Etlinger,  Dr.  F.  K.,  22 
Eucalyptus  and  malaria,  16 
Euonymus  japouica,  1 9 
Eve,  Trof.  A.  S.,  17 


308 


rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 


Exmoor,  plantations  on,  116 
Exposure  and  planting,  105,  116 

Fernow,  E.  B.,  11 

Fescue,  108 

Filtration  of  water  supply,  104,  226 

Fisher,  W.  R.,  96 

Floods  diminished  by  forests,  7,  9 

Forest  air,  16 

Forest  influence — 

on  air  temperature,  3 

on  climate,  1 

on  erosion  of  the  soil,  1,  7 

on  floods,  7,  8,  9 

on  flow  of  streams,  1 0 

on  rainfall,  3 

on  silting  of  reservoirs,  76 

on  snow  melting,  5 

on  soil  temperature,  3 

on  springs,  7 

on  water  supply,  6 
Forestry  societies  and  schools,  66 
Forestry    work     at     Hairmyres    for 

tuberculous  patients,  28 
Forests — 

absence  of,  on  west  coast,  114 

aesthetic  value  of,  18 

and  climate,  1 

and  hygiene,  13 

and  underground  water,  16 

as  sites  for  sanatoria,  20 

bacteria  in  air  and  soil  of,  17 

drainage  by,  improving  health,  16 

of  conifers  and   tuberculosis,    22, 
26 

on  mountain  watersheds,  9 

sanitary  influence  of,  13 

villages  in,  free  from  cholera,  17 
Fraxinus  excelsior,  50,  119,  149 
Frosts,  spring,  and  peat-bogs,  15 
Furze,  108 

Games,  organised,  in  pai'ks,  37 
Gathering  grounds.    See  Water  catch- 
ment areas 
Giandotti,  M.,  2 
Ginkgo  biloba,  55 
Glasgow  Municipal  Forest,  41 
Gordon,  G.  P.,  31,  32 
Gordon,  Dr.  W.,  14 
Grants  for  attbrestation,  80 
Grass  moors.  111 
Grazing,  zone  of  hill,  106 
Grazing  in  larch  plantations,  117 


Hairmyres  Colony  Sanatorium,  27 

Hairmyres  forest  nursery,  28 

Hall  and  Maxwell,  8 

Hamburger,  Prof.,  25 

Hardie,  Dr.  M.,  114 

Hawes,  Austin  F.,  11 

Hay  fever,  20 

Hazel,  150 

Health  and  forests,  18 

Heather,  109 

Heaths,  106,  109 

Hemlock  spruce,  144 

Henzell,  C.  G.,  100 

Hill  pasture,  106,  117 

Hill,  Prof.  Leonard,  22 

Hinsdale,  Dr.  Guy,  32 

Hollies  for  towns,  54 

Holmes,  Basil,  38 

Hornbeam,  157 

Horse  chestnut,  51 

Huffel,  G.,  12,  17 

Hybrid  trees,  121 

Hydrogen  peroxide,  16 

Rex,  hybrids  of,  54 

India,    forest   influence    on    climate 

of,  2 
Interplanting,  134 
lonisation  of  forest  air,  17 

Juglans  nigra,  47,  168 
•Juncus,  111 

Kellogg,  Frank  B.,  18 
Knockboy  plantation,  127 

Laburnum,  53 

Lanark,     attbrestation     scheme      at 

Camps,  29 
Landes,  forests  of,  improving  health, 

18 
Larch — 

European,  15,  93,  98,  139 

Japanese,  142 

western,  143 

woods  and  grazing,  117 
Laurel,  19 

Lawson  cypress,  19,  146 
Lawson,  Dr.  David,  22 
Lees,  E.  A.,  103 
Leighton,  M.  0.,  8 
Lime  trees,  species  of,  51 
Liquidambar,  53 
Loomis,  Dr.  A.  L.,  21 


INDEX 


309 


Maidenliair  tree,  5o 

Malaria  diminished  by  forests,  16, 
18 

Maple,  Norway,  51,  156 

Margerison,  S.,  76 

Mathieu,  A.,  11 

Metropolitan  Public  Gardens  Associa- 
tion, 39 

Midland  Reafforesting  Association,  59 

Mill,  Dr.  Hugh  R.,  2 

Mitchell,  L.,  187 

Molinia  caerulea,  108,  111 

Moorland  zone,  109 

Moors,  planting  of,  112 

Mulberry,  53 

Municipal  forests,  41 

Nancy,  observations  on  forests  and 

rainfall  at,  4,  16 
Nardus  stricta,  108,  111 
National  Trust,  40 
New  Forest,  rainfall  of,  2 
Nordrach  Colonic  Sanatorium,  21 
Nordrach-on-Dee  Sanatorium,  22 

Oak- 
common,  53,  152 
evergreen,  54,  154,  156 
Turkey,  154 

Oaks  for  towns,  53 

Oil  shale,  69,  70 

Open  spaces,  33 

Oppokov,  E.  v.,  9 

Oxygen  in  air  of  forests,  1 5 

Ozone  in  air  of  forests,  16 

Pan,  110 
Parks— 

in  towns,  33 

purity  of  air  in,  1 8 

of  Birmingham,  35 

of  London,  33 
Parry,  J.,  72,  80,  84 
Paulownia  imperialis,  47 
Peat- 
bogs, afforestation  of,  15,  19 

bogs,  chilling  effect  of,  15 

formation  of,  19,  111 

moors.  111,  112 

on  mountains,  14 

planting  on,  15,  112,  138,  194 
Pennines,  108,  109 
Phagocytosis,  25 
Phthisis,  20,  28 


Pine- 
Austrian,  54,  98,  125 

Corsican,  54,  93,  98,  124 

forests  and  sanatoria,  21 

leaves,  chemical  constituents  of,  2; 

maritime,  15,  19,  125 

needle  oil,  25 

plantations  at  Bournemouth,  24 

Scots,  15,  98,  120,  123 

Weymouth,  93 
Pines,  emanations  of  leaves  of,  25 
Pines,  odours  of,  25 
Pinus  insignis,  127 
Pinus  niontana,  126 
Pit  banks  and  bings,  60,  68,  70 
Pit  mounds — 

afforestation  of,  59,  67,  155 

sowing  of,  62,  67 

trees  for,  63,  155 
Plane,  various  species,  48 
Plantations — 

Ardgoil,  41 

Elan,  102 

Exmoor,  116 

Rivington,  95 

Thirlmere,  96 

Vyrnwy,  92 

Washburn  Valley,  100 
Planting — 

at  high  elevations,  115 

mattock  used  in,  98 

on  peat,  15^  112,  138,  194 

on  pit  banks,  60,  155 

on  water  catchment  areas,  85 

trees  in  towns,  55 

wet  spots,  137,  154 
Platanus,  several  species,  48 
Playground   movement   in  America, 

42 
Playgrounds  in  towns,  39,  40 
Pliny,  treatment  of  tuberculosis,  20 
Poplars,  49,  63,  121,  164 
Populus,   various   species,   49     121 

164 
Proceeds-sharing,  80 
Pruning  of  trees,  56 
Prunus,  species  of,  53 
Pyrus,  species  of,  53 

Quercus,  species  of,  53,  154 

Rainfall,  influence  of  forests  on,  3 
Reconstruction  Report  on   Forestry, 


310 


FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 


Reservoirs — 

dead  leaves  in,  76,  217 
protection  of,  by  tree  belts,  76 
silting  of,  76 

Return  as  to  Water  Undertakings  in 
England  and  Wales,  104,  170 

Rigg,  G.  B.,  19 

Rights  of  grazing,  103 

Roberts,  C.  H.,  10 

Robinia  Pseudacacia,  50,  65,  69,  169 

Rowley  Regis  School  Plantation,  65 

Run-otf  water,  6 

Ruskin,  73 

Sallx,  various  species,  167 
Sallow,  167 

Salt  spray  carried  inland,  19 
Salt  spray,  injury  to  trees,  13,  19 
Sanatoria  in  forests,  20 
Sanatorium — 

Brompton  Hospital,  Frimley,  21,  22 

at  Hairinyres,  27 

at  Nordrach,  21 

Nordrach-on-Dee,  22 

Pinewood,  Wokingham,  22 
Sand  dunes,  afforestation  of,  19,  124, 

126 
Sanitary  influence  of  forests,  13 
School  forestry  societies,  66 
School  plantations,  62,  64 
Scirpus  moor.  111 
Scots  pine,  15,  98,  120,  123 
Seed,  selection  of,  122,  141 
Shale  banks,  planting  of,  69 
Sheep  and  shelter  belts,  15 
Sheep  in  larch  woods,  117 
Sheep  on  water  catchment  areas,  74 
Shelter  belts,  14,  24,  129,  139,  147, 

148,  156 
Shelter  for  dairy  farms,  18 
Shelter  of  grazing  land,  18,  19,  117, 

118 
Shelter  of  sanatoria,  24 
Silver  fir,  93,  128 
Slag  heaps,  60,  69 
Smoke,  effect  on  trees,  45,  57,  95 
Smoke  of  towns,  45,  178 
Snow,  influence  of  forests  on,  5 
Soil  erosion,  forest  influence  on,  1,  7 
Soil  in  towns,  45 
Soot  and  trees,  45,  54 
Sowing  on  pit  mounds,  62 
Special  adaptability,  82 
Sphagnum  moor,  111 


Springs,  forest  influence  on,  7 
Spruce — 

at  high  elevation,  31 

common,  15,  76,  93,  134 

Sitka,  94,  98,  136 

white,  115,  138 
Staking  trees,  55 
Stevenson,  R.  L.,  11 
Stomata  of  leaves  and  soot,  54 
Story,  Prof.  Fraser,  234,  239 
Stream-flow,  forest  influence  on,  10 
Streets,  planting  of,  55 

trees  for,  47 
Sulphur  dioxide  and  trees,  45,  58 
Sycamore,  51,  63,  156 

Tarred  roads  and  trees,  46,  58 
Temperature,     influence    of    forests 

on,  3 
Thomson,  Prof.  James,  34 
Thuya   gigantea,    19,    42,    93,    133, 

145 
Tilia,  species  of,  51 
Timber  line,  115 
Town  Planning  Act,  38 
Towns,  parks  in,  33 
Towns,  trees  for,  48 
Transpiration  of  oak  forest,  3 
Tree  limit,  113 
Trees— 

and  altitude,  113 

and  chemical  works,  58 

choice  of,  120 

damaged  by  shale  industry,  69,  70 

damaged  by  soot  and  smoke,   45, 
57,  95 

for  water  catchment  areas,  119 

in  towns,  44,  47 

injury  by  salt  spray,  13 

leaves  of,  injured  by  wind,  19 

preservation  of,  56 

wind  effect  on,  13 
Tsuga  albertiana,  144 
Tuberculosis,  sanatoria  for,  21 
Tulip  tree,  47 
Turpentine,   eftect  on    phagocytosis, 

26 
Typhoid  cases  and  water  supply,  77 

Ulex,  108 

Ulmus,  species  of,  52,  160 
Underplanting,  144,  146,  157 
Unemployed,   planting  by  the,    87, 
100,  195 


INDEX 


311 


Veeretatioii  zones,  1( 


117 


Walker,  Dr.  Gilbert,  2 
Walnut,  black,  47,  168 
Walther,  Dr.,  21,  22 
Waste  land,  106 
Water  Catchment  Areas— 

Aberdeenshire,  282 

abolition  of  habitations  and  farms 
on,  73,  188 

afforestation  of,   71,  75,  86,  105, 
282 

arguments  for  planting,  75,  81 

Argyllshire,  249 

at  low  altitudes,  172,  204    212 

Belmont,  188 

Bute,  249 

bye-laws  for,  214,  238 

Camps,  Mid-Lanark,  27,  261 

Cheshire,  206 

Clackmannan,  272 

compulsory  purchase  by  Corpora- 
tions, 73,  82,  247 

Cornwall,  218 

Cumberland,  172 

Derbyshire,  206 

Development      Commissioners' 
scheme  for  afforestation,  89 

Devon,  218 

Dumbartonshire,  249 

Dumfriesshire,  254 

Durham,  176 

Elan  and  Claerwen,  101,  238 

England,  171 

exorbitant  prices  paid  for,  82 

extent  of  total,  78,  88 

extent  owned  by  Corporations,  85, 

86,  88 
Fifeshii-e,  272 
Forfarshire,  277 
Glencorse,  264,  266 
Glendevon,  279 
Glenfinlas,  249 
Glensherrup,  279 
Gorbals,  86,  250 
Inverness,  282 
Ireland,  286 
Kinross,  272 
Kirkcudbrightshire,  254 
Lake  District,  172 
Lanarkshire,  259 
Lancashire,  178 
Leicestershire,  212 
Lincolnshire,  212 


Water  Catchment  Areas  (cuntd.) — 
Lintrathen,  82,  282 
Loch  Arklet,  249 
Loch  Bradan,  257 
Loch  Katrine,  86,  249 
Longdendale,  98,  206 
municipal  ownership  of,  207,  219, 
226,  229,  261,  277 

Northamptonshire,  212 

Northumberland,  176 

Perthshire,  249,  277 

planting,  75,  76,  105 

prevention  of  floods,  76 

prevention   of  pollution,   71,   77. 
187,  238 

purchase  of,  73,  77 

Reconstruction     Committee's    re- 
commendations, 79 

Renfrew,  249 

restrictions  on,  227,  238,  277 

River  Farg,  277,  278 

Rivington,  94,  180 

sanitary  condition  of,  214,  238 

Scotland,  247 

Severn  Basin,  218 

sheep  grazing  on,  74 

Slateford  Burn,  277,  278 

Stirlingshire,  259 

Talla,  265,  268 

Thirlmere,  73,  95,  172 

trees  for,  119 

utilisation  of,  73 

Vyrnwy,  88,  237 

Wales,  230 

Washburn  Valley,  99 

Westmorland,  172 

Wigtownshire,  254 

Yorkshire,  190 
Water  Catchment  Areas  supplying — 

Aberdare  U.D.C.,  245 

Abertillery  and  District,  221 

Aberystwyth,  237 

Accrington  District  Gas  and  Water 
Board,  184 

Airdrie,  Coatbridge,  and  District, 
264 

Alexandria,   Bonhill,  and   James- 
town Disti-ict,  250 

Alloa,  272 

Annan,  258 

Arbroath,  280 

Ardrossan,  254 

Armagh,  293 

Ashton  in  Makerfield  U.D.C.,  189 


312 


FOKESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TREES 


Water   Catchment   Areas  supplying   | 

{contd.  )— 
Ashton  under  Lyme,  Stalybridge, 

and  Dunkinfield  (District),  207 
Aspatria,  Silloth,  and  District,  172 
Ayr,  256 
Bacup,  186 
Baildon  U.D.C.,  198 
Ballina,  305 
Ballymena,  289 
Ballymoney,  289 
Banbridge,  292 
Bangor  (Down),  291 
Bangor  (Wales),  232 
Barnsley,  203 
Barrow  in  Furness,  180 
Bathgate  District,  262 
Batley,  202 
Beith,  255 
Belfast,  287 
Birkenhead,  234 
Birmingham,  101 
Birr,  300 
Blackburn,  195 

Blairgowrie,  Rattray,  and  Dist.,  280 
Bolton,  187 
Bo'ness,  269 

Boston  Waterworks  Co.,  217 
Bradford,  193 
Brechin,  281 

Bridge  of  Allan  Water  Co.,  260 
Bristol  Waterworks  Co.,  221 
Briton  Ferry  U.D.C.,  244 
Brymbo  Water  Co.,  235 
Brynmawr  U.D.C.,  241 
Buncrana,  291 
Bundoran,  305 

Burley-in-Wharfedale  U.D.C,  197 
Burnley,  183 
Burntisland,  274 
Bury  and  District,  184 
Butte vant,  303 
Buxton  U.D.C,  210 
Cahirciveen,  304 
Cardiff,  239 
Carlisle,  172 
Carlow,  300 
Carnarvon,  232 
Carnforth  District  Waterworks  Co. , 

182 
Carrick-on-Suir,  301 
Castlebar,  305 
Castleblayney,  295 
Cavan,  295 


Water    Catchment  Areas  supplying 

(contd. ) — 
Cheltenham,  219 
Chesterfield  Gas  and  Water  Board, 

211 
Chesterfield  R.D.C.,  211 
Church  Stretton  U.D.C,  218 
Cleator  Moor  U.D.C,  174 
Cleveland  Water  Co.,  205 
Clones,  294 

Clydebank  and  District,  251 
Colne,  182 

Conway  and  Colwyn  Bay,  233 
Crietf,  280 
Cupar  (Fife),  275 
Dairy,  255 
Darwen,  189 

Denny  and  Dunipace,  259 
Derwent  Valley  Water  Board,  210 
Devonport,  226 

Dewsbury  and  Heckmondwike,  203 
Doncaster,  204 
Drogheda,  299 
Dublin,  296 
Dumbarton,  251 

Dumfries  and  Maxwelltown,  258 
Dundalk,  299 
Dundee,  281 
Dunfermline,  279 
Dunfermline  District,  279 
Dungannon,  293 
Dungarvan,  302 
Dunoon,  252 
Duns,  271 

Ebbw  Vale  U.D.C,  241 
Edinburgh,  264 
Ennis,  305 
Enniskillen,  295 
Exmouth  U.D.C,  224 
Falkirk  and  Larbert  Trust,  260 
Falmouth  Waterworks  Co.,  229 
Fermoy,  303 
Forfar,  281 
Fraserburgh,  283 
Fulwood  U.D.C,  182 
Fylde  Water  Board,  181 
Galashiels,  271 
Girvan,  257 
Glasgow,  249 
Glossop,  209 
Gloucester,  220 
Glyncorwg  U.D.C,  244 
Grange  U.D.C,  181 
Grangemouth,  260 


INDEX 


313 


Water    Catchment   Areas    supplying 
[contd. ) — 

Greenock,  252 

Guisborough  Water  Co.,  205 

Halifax,  199 

Hamilton,  262 

Harrogate,  192 

Hawarden    and     District    Water- 
works Co.,  236 

Hawick,  271 

Helensburgh,  250 

Hey  wood  and  Middleton,  188 

Higham  Ferrars  and  Rushden,  214 

Holyhead  Waterworks  Co.,  230 

Holy  wood,  291 

Horwich  U.D.C.,  189 

Hudderstield,  201 

Inverness,  282 

Inverurie,  285 

Irvine  and  District,  255 

Ivybridge  U.D.C.,  227 

Keady,  293 

Keighley,  198 

Keith,  284 

Kelso,  272 

Kendal,  175 

Kettering  U.D.C.,  214 

Kilbirnie,  255 

Kilkenny,  300 

Killarney,  304 

Killorglin,  304 

Kilmarnock,  256 

Kilsyth,  259 

Kingussie,  283 

Kirkcaldy  and  Dysart,  274 

Kirkcaldy  District,  277 

Kirkcudbright,  258 

Kirriemuir,  280 

Lanark,  263 

Lanarkshire  Middle  Ward,  29,  261 

Lancaster,  181 

Lauder,  271 

Leeds,  99,  190 

Leicester,  216 

Letterkenny,  291 

Leven,  275 

Linlithgow  County,  Bathgate  Dis- 
trict, 262 

Linlithgow  County,   Central  Dis- 
trict, 270 
Linlithgow  District,  269 
Lisburn,  289 
Liverpool,  88 
Llandudno  U.D.C.,  233 


Water    Catchment  Areas    supplying 
{contd. ) — 
Llanelly,  238 

Llanfairfechan  U.D.C.,  232 
Llanidloes,  237 
Llantrisant     and      Llantwitfardre 

R.D.C.,  246 
Loanhead,  269 
Lochgelly,  272 
Londonderry,  290 
Longford,  299 
Loughborough,  215 
Macclesfield,  208 
Machynlleth  U.D.C.,  237 
Mallow,  303 
Malvern  U.D.C.,  219 
Manchester,  95 
Margam  U.D.C.,  243 
Melton  Mowbray  U.D.C.,  216 
Merthyr  Tydfil,  240 
Middleton,  302 
Milford  Haven  U.D.C.,  238 
Millom  U.D.C.,  175 
Monaghan,  294 
Morley,  200 
Morpe"th,  176 
Motherwell,  262 
Mountain  Ash  U.D.C.,  244 
Nantwich  U.D.C.,  211 
Neath,  243 
Neath  R.D.C.,  241 
Nelson,  183 
Nenagh,  301 
Newburgh,  276 
Newcastle  (Down),  292 
Newcastle    and    Gateshead   Water 

Co.,  176 
Newport  (Mon.),  220 
New  Ross,  300 
Newry,  293 
Newtown       and      Llanllwchaiarn 

U.D.C.,  237 
Northampton,  212 
North  Berwick,  270 
Okehampton,  228 
Oldham,  202 
Omagh,  294 
Oswestry,  236 
Otley  U.D.C.,  196 
Padiham  U.D.C.,  183 
Paignton  U.D.C.,  228 
Paisley,  253 

Penmaenmawr  U.D.C.,  232 
Penrith  U.D.C.,  175 


14 


rOEESTS,  WOODS,  AND  TEEES 


Water   Catchment   Areas  supplying 

(contd.) — 
Penzance,  229 
Peterhead,  284 

Pittenweem  and  Anstruthers,  276 
Plymouth,  224 

Pontypridd  and  Rhondda,  244 
Portadown  and  Banbridge,  292 
Port  Glasgow,  252 
Portrush,  290 
Ports te wart,  290 
Preston,  182 

Prestonpans  Water  Trust,  270 
Queenstown,  302 
Rathmines  and  Rathgar  U.D.C., 

298 
Renfrew  First  District,  253 
Rhondda  U.D.C.,  245 
Rhyl  U.D.C.,  233 
Ripon,  192 
Rochdale,  186 
Rosyth,  279 
Rothesay,  252 
Ruabon  Water  Co.,  235 
St.  Andrews,  276 
St.  Ives  (Cornwall),  229 
Scunthorpe  U.D.C.,  217 
Sheffield,  203 
Shipley  U.D.C.,  197 
Skipton  U.D.C.,  195 
Sligo,  305 
South  Molton,  224 
Stirling,  259 

Stirling  Eastern  District,  261 
Stockport,  207 
Strabane,  294 
Stranraer,  258 
Stratford-on-Avon,  219 
Stratton  and  Bude  U.D.C.,  224 
Swansea,  242 
Tain,  283 
Taunton,  222 

Tees  Valley  Water  Board,  190 
Templemore,  301 
Thirsk  District  Water  Co.,  205 
Thurles,  301 
Tipperary,  301 
Todmorden,  200 
Torquay,  227 
Towyn  U.D.C.,  236 
Tralee,  303 
Tredegar  U.D.C..  221 


Water    Catchment   Areas   supplying 
{contd. ) — 

Troon,    Prestwick,    and    Ayrshire 
Special,  257 

Tullamore,  299 

Turriff;  284 

Tynemouth,  176 

Wakefield,  200 

Warrenpoint,  292 

Warrington,  189 

Waterford,  302 

Weardale  and  Cousett  Water  Co., 
177 

Wellington  (Salop)  U.D.C.,  218 

Wemyss  and  District,  275 

Westmorland,  South,  R.D.C.,  175 

Wexford,  300 

Wharfedale  R.D.C.,  197 

Whitburn,  269 

Whitehaven,  174 

Wigan,  189 

Wishaw,  263 

M*orkington,  174 

Wrexham  and  East  Denbighshire 
Water  Co.,  234 

Yeadon  Waterworks  Co.,  205 

Youghal,  302 
Watersheds,  deforestation  of,  9 
Water  supply — 

action  of  lead  on,  194 

filtration  of,  104,  226 

sources  of,  71 

storage  as  means  of  purification, 
74,  187 
Watson,  James,  82,  194 
Wet  spots,  planting,  137,  154 
Whin,  108 

Whitton,  James,  41,  43 
Willow,  various  species,  167 
Wind- 
effect  on  trees,  13 
harmful  in  phthisis,  14 

trees  resisting,   19,    54,  124,  128, 
129,  147,  162 

Yew,  19 

Zon,  R.,  4 

Zone,  agi-arian,  118 

of  hill  pasture,  1 1 7 

moorland,  117 
Zones  of  vegetation,  106,  117 


Frinted  in  Great  Britain  by  R.  &  R.  Cl.. 


Limited,  Ediyihiirgh. 


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